MARTIN'S 


NATUEAL    HISTORY. 


TRANSLATED  FROM  THE  THIRTY-FIFTH  GERMAN  EDITION', 

BY    SAKAH    A.    MYERS. 


CONTAINING  TWO   HUNDRED  AND   SIXTY-TWO 
BEAUTIFULLY  COLORED  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


SECOND     SERIES. 


NEW     YORK: 
PHINXEY,   BLAKEMAX   &   MASON. 

BUFFALO  :     BREED,    BUTLER    &    CO. 
1801. 


MARTIN'S    NATURAL    HISTORY. 


SERIES. 


CLASS  I.—  MAMMALIA. 
"     II.—  B  I  R  D  S  . 
«  III.—  KEPT  ILIA. 

1  vol.     12  mo.     484  pages.     Price  $1  50. 


SECOND      SERIES. 

CLASS  IV.— F  I  S  II  ES. 

"       V.-M  O  L  L  U  S  C  A  . 
"    VI.— IN  SECT  A. 

VEGETABLE  KINGDOM. 
MINEE  A  LOG  Y. 

1  vol.     12mo.    484  pages.     Price  $1  50. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  I860,  by 
PHIN'XEY,  BLAKKMAX  &  MASON. 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United   Siatcs  for  Ilii 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 

STEUEOTTPF.D  BY  SMITH  &  McDorcAL,  S2  &  84  Boi'km.-i  >  st. 


CONTENTS. 


CLASS    IY. 

FISHES. 

PACK 

First  Order.    ACAXTHOPTF.RYGTANS.    Bony  Fins 14 

Second  Order.    MALACOPTERYGIAXS.    Abdominales.     Soft  Fins 2S 

Tl.ird  Order.     MALACOPTERYGIAXS.     "\VithPectoralFins 41 

Fourth  Order.    MALACOPTERYGII  APODA.    Eels 44 

Fifth  Order.    LOPHOBRAXCHII.     Needle  Fish 4T 

Sixth  Order.     PLKCTOGNATHI.    Bullet  Fish 4S 

Seventh  Order.    CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES.    Branchis  Liberis 49 

Eighth  Order.  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES.  Chondropterigii,  with  fixed  Branches.  51 


CLASS    V. 

MOLLUSCA.  —  SOFT    AXIMALS. 

First  Order.     CEPHALOPODA 

Second  Order.     GASTEROPODA 

Third  Order.    ACEPII ALA.    Bivalves 


CLASS    VI. 

IXSECTA. 

First  Division.    CRI-STACEA 34 

First  Order.     BEACHYI-RA  OR  O.AB< 85 

Second  Order.     MOLLL-SCOUS  IXSECTS 90 

Second  Division.     Ap.ArnxiDiAvs.     Spider  kind.     Entomologv.. ..                ..  90 

'J hird  Division.     HEXAP...I.S.     True  Insects .." 93 

First  Order.     APTF.P.A.     Insects  without  Winss 99 

Second  Order.     COLEOPTEP.A.    Beetles 103 

First  Family.    Herbivorous  Beetles 104 

1.  SearabeiB 104 

2.  Leaf  Eaters 107 

3.  AYood  Beetles • 107 

Second  Familv.     Carnivorous  Beetles ...Ill 

1.  Voracious  Beetles 112 

2.  Para-ile  Iketlus 115 

8.  Carrion  Beetles 117 

Third  Family.     MKLASOMA.     Mold  Eaters 120 

1.  Mushroom  Beetles / 120 

2.  Dust  Katinjr  Beetles 121 

3.  Ground  Beetles 122 


jv  CONTENTS. 

PACK 

Third  Order.     OBTIIOPTER A.    Crickets,  etc 1  *<|' 

Fourth  Order.     Butterflies 14^ 

FirstFamily.    1.  Moths J*J 

2.  Leaf  Kellers «« 

3.  Candle  Moths lil2 

Second  Family.     PIIAI.^XA 152 

1.  Geometia— Spanners «« 

2.  Noctua \yi 

8.  Sjiinners Jf>' 

Tliird  Family.    CREPUSOULARIA—  LF.I-IDOPTERA 1«4 

1.  Hawk  Moths.    Sphinxes J« 

2.  Transparent  (Glass)  Wings jjg 

3.  Buzzers *™ 

Fourth  Family.    DIURNA.    Butterflies 1TO 

1.  Hesperia 'I'" 

2.  Flutterers "* 

3.  Aeronauts * ' ' 

Fifth  Order.     HYMF.XOPTERA.    Bees  and  Gnats 181 

FORMICA     Ants  1°' 

DIPTERA.     Insects  of  the  Fly  kind 19^ 


CLASS    VII. 

WOEM8.  —  RADIATA. 

First  Order.     LUMBRICI 195 

Second  Order.    INTESTINAL  WORMS IW 

Third  Order.    ZOOPIIYTF.S.    Sea  Nettles— Star  Fish— Polypi 199 

Fourth  Order.     IXFCSOIUA.    AnlmalculiB 202 


THE   VEGETABLE    KINGDOM. 

First  Division.     VASCULAR  PLANTS 

First  Class.     KXOHENS 

First  Sub-Class.    Seed -bearing 

I.  First  Family.    K  ANUSODT.^: 219 

Second  Family.  M  AGXOI.IAOF./F. , 221 

Third  Family.    MF.NISPKKMACK.E 222 

Fourth  Family.    BABBAUEA 222 

II.  Fifth  Family.    PAPAVERACF..E 2-23 

Sixth  Family.    FUM ATORIA 22 1 

Seventh  Family.    CRUCIFKIS.S 224 

Eighth  Family.    CAI-ARIDAOK.* 2'29 

JJinth  Family.    BIXINA 229 

Tenth  Family.    VIOLACE* 229 

III.  Eleventh  Family.     CAEYOPIIVLLACK.B.     Pink 230 

Twelfth  Family.    LIXF.ACK.F. 232 

Thirteenth  Family.     MALVAOE.K 2H2 

Fourteenth  Family.  NUCIFERA 224 

Fifteenth  Family.    TILIACK.K.     Linden 2:W 

Sixteenth  Family.    CAMELLIA.    Tea 236 

Seventeenth  Family.    AUKAKTIAOHJB.    Lemon 2MS 

Eighteenth  Family.     HYPEKIACE.B 240 

Nineteenth  Family.    HII-POCASTAXACE.*.     Horse  Chestnut. ..:...     211 

Twentieth  Family.    VITACEA:.    Vine 242 

Twentj-llrst  Family.     GEBAXIACK.K 216 

Twenty-second  Family.    TBDPAOOLAO*.* 24ii 

Twenty-third  Family.    OXALIDACE*....  ...247 


CONTENTS. 


Second  Sub-Class.    Flowers  with  one  or 
on  the  Calyx 

Twenty-fourth  Family.     P.n AMNACK.K 2-13 

Twenty-fifth  Family.    TXBKBIXTIIKJ! 24» 

Twenty-sixth  Family.     PAPILIOXACK.*: 250 

Twenty-seventh  Family.     UOSACE.E 259 

Twenty-eight]!  Family."    PUMEGRAX ATK 269 

Twenty-ninth  Family.    MYRTAOE.EA 270 

Thirtieth  Family.     CI:CI'!:KITACK.K 272 

Thirty -first  Family.    GEOSSUL  ACF..E.     Currants 274 

Thirty-second  Family.     UMBELI.IFER/E 277 

Thirty-third  Family.    CAPRIFOLI ACK.K 2S2 

Thirty -fourth  Family.    LOK  AXTII  ACK.E 293 

Thirty-fifth  Family.     COMACK.K 234 

Thirty-sixth  Family.     KITKIACK.E S84 

Thirty-seventh  Family.     VALERIA* ACK.E 28T 

Thirty-eighth  Family.     COMPOSIT.C.    Asters 288 

Thirty-ninth  Family.    VACCINIA 294 

Fortieth  Famiiy.    EP.I ACK.K 205 

Third  Sub-Class.    Flowering  Shrubs 297 

Forty-first  Family.     OLE  ACK.E 297 

Forty -second  Family.    DATURA 299 

Forty-third  Family.    ASCI.EPIADAOE.E 800 

Forty-fourth  Family.    GKXTIAXACE.K 2nl 

Forty-fifth  Family.     COXVOLVULACF..^ 802 

Forty-sixth  Family.    BoKASiBAORfl 803 

Forty-seventh  Famfly.     SOLIXACE* 804 

Forty-eighth  Family.     SCKOPHULARACK.E 8116 

Forty-ninth  Family.     LABI  ATA 309 

Fiftieth  Family.    PRIMULACK.E 312 

Fourth  Sub-Class.    Flowers  enclosed  in  a  Sheath 814 

Fifty-first  Family.     CHEXOPOKIA 814 

Fifty-second  Faintly.     POLYUOXE.E 315 

Fifty-third  Family."    LAWKACK.E 316 

Fifty-fourth  Family.    THYMEI.ACK^E ols 

Fifty-fifth  Family.     A  RISTOLACB.K.    Bin  hworts 818 

Fift'v-sixth  Fami'lv.    EUI-IIORBIACE.*:.     Spnrpeworts 819 

Fifty-seventh  Family.     Firrs.    Fig  Plants 823 

Fifty-eii-'h* h  Family.     Ur.TicArE.t: 325 

J'iftv-ninth  Family.     CL-ITLIKKK.K.     Mastworts 327 

Sixtieth  Family.   "SAUCACK.*: 829 

Sixty-first  Family.     KKTOLAOKJE 831 

Sixty -second  Family.    AUIKTIXE.K.     Pines 832 

Second  Class.    ENDOGEXS 837 

First  Sub-Class.     Seed-bearing  Plants 337 

Sixty-third  Family.    OKCIIIDACE.E 837 

Sixty-fourth  Family.     ZIXOIBERACKJS 838 

Sixty-fifth  Family.     LII.IACE.E 889 

Sixty-sixth  Family.     PALMK.*: 34«> 

Sixty-seventh  Family.    GRAMIXE.E 353 

Second  Sub-Class.    C'Rvi'TOGAMors  PLAXTS 364 

Sixty-cislith  Family.     EQUISATACE.E.     Horsetails 364 

Sixty-ninth  Family.     LYCOPODIOK.S.     Club-moss 8M 

Seventieth  Family.    FILICKS,    Ferns 365 

Second  Division.    First  Sub-Class.    Cellular  Plants  with  Leaves.   ACROGEXS.  366 

Seventy-first  Family.     HEI'ATICA.EA.     Liverworts 866 

Seventy-second  Family.     Musci.     Hair  Cap  Moss 366 

Second  Sub-Class.     Cellular  Plants  without  Leaves 

Seventy-third  Family.     LICHENS 

Seventy-fourth  Family.     AU;,E 

Seventy-fifch  Family.    Fuxui 869 

Indigenous  Poisonous  Plants 372 


ri  CONTEXTS. 

MINERALOGY. 

PAOB 

Primitive  Formations  of  the  Earth 890 

First  Class.    STRATIFIED  MOUNTAINS.     Primitive  Eocks. 401 

first  Order.    TRANSITION  FOKMATIOX 4ol 

Second  Order.    TERTIARY  FORMATION ..  404 

Third  Order.    SECONDARY  KOCK  FORMATION.    Floetz-gebirge 405 

L  CRETACEOUS  FORMATION 406 

II.  J  UK  A  FORMATION '. 407 

III.  TRIAS  FORMATION 40!) 

Fourth  Order.    SEDIMENTARY  KOCKS 411 

Second  Class.    MASSIVE  ROCK  FORMATION 415 

First  Order.    PRIMITIVE  MOUNTAINS 415 

Second  Order.    VOLCANIC  KOCKS 417 

SPECIAL      MIXERALOG-Y. 

First  Class.    EARTHY  MINERALS .   .  4-23 

First  Order.    SILICA 4-J3 

Second  Order.     ALUMINA.     Clay 4-29 

Third  Order.    TALC 437 

Fourth  Order.    LIME 4:39 

SecondClass.    SALTS 444 

First  Order.     SALTS  OF  ALUMINA 4i4 

Second  Order.     A LK ALINE  SALTS 44.5 

Third  Order.    MF.LLITE  OK  ALUMINA 447 

Fourth  Order.    METALLIC  SALTS 447 

Third  Class.    COMBUSTIBLE  MINERALS 443 

First  Order.     CARBON  COAL 449 

Second  Order.     MINERAL  KESIN  OR  PITCH 451 

Third  Order.    MINERAL  OILS 452 

Fourth  Order.     METALLIC  EARTHS 453 

Fourth  Class.    METALLIC  ORES 4M 

First  Order.    EARTHS  CONTAINING  METALS 454 

Second  Order.     METALLIC  STONE  ORES  UNITED  WITH  ACIDS 459 

Third  Order.    ORE?  COMBINED  WITH  SULPHUR 462 

Fourth  Order.    PI-RE  NATIVE  ORES , . . .  46T 


EXPLANATION  OF   PLATES. 


1  Pilot  —  2  Sea  Horse  —  3  Stur- 
freon—  1  Lamprey—  5  River  Eel—  6  Gi- 
ant Shark—  7  Petradon—  9  Hamm 


headed   Shark—  9    Sta 
Wolf. 


Gazer—  10  Sea 


PLATE  XXI. 

1  Flying  Horse  or  Sea  Dragon 
—  2  Carp.  Groundling— 3  Herring— 4 
Silurus— 5  'I  he  Cod-  Ling— 6  Salmon 
—7  Pike— S  'ihunnv. 


PLATE  XXII. 

1  Cabinet  Beetle  —  2  Pine  Bee- 
tlu— 3  Sexton  Beetle— 4  Devil's  Coach- 
horse  —  5  Death  Watch  —  t>  Common 
Borer  —  7  Buprestis  —  S  May  Bug  —  1) 
Musk.  Beetle  —  111  Diamond  Beetle— II 
Com  Worm— 12  Rhinoceros  Beetle— 13 
.^panish  Fly— 14  Stag  Beetle— 15  Swim- 
ming Eeetie--16  Hercules. 


PLATE  XXIII. 


phant's  Tusk.     Dentaliam  —  8  Pointed 


PLATE   XXVI. 

1  Liberia.  Dragon  Fly  —  2  Bird 
Spider— 3  Cuttle  Fish  —  4  Lobster  —  5 
a.  b.  Ant  Lion  —  6  Scorpion  —  7  Cen- 
tipede—S  Hornet-9  Mole  Cricket— 10 
Praying  Mantis— 11  Leech. 


PLATK  XXVII. 

1  Date  Palm  — 2  Black  Pepper  — 
8  Nutmeg— 4  Almond  Tree  — 5  In- 
digo. 


PLATE  XXVIII. 

1  Sugar  Cane  —  2  Clove  —  3  Cot- 
ton —  4  Tea  Plant  —  5  Vanilla  —  6 
Coffee  Shrub. 


PLATE  XXIX. 


!      1   Common  Moril  —  2   Coral  Mori!— 
3  Truffee  —  4  Mushroom,     u  5—6  u  7 

1    Pine    Moth  —  2   Red    Spot  —  3     Edible   Mushroom— S  u  9  Bird's  Eye. 
Beech  Roller— 4  Alucita— 5  Bee  Moth—     Agaric. 
6  Swallow-tailed  Butterfly— 7  Fir  Moth 
-8  Sorrel  Moth  —  9  Matron  —  10  Bine 

Kibbon  — 11  Red  Ribbon— 12  Admiral  PLATE  XXX. 

—13  Death's  Head— 14  Lackey  Mot 
15  Kidney  Spot. 


PLATE  XXIV. 


1  Belladonna— 2  Colchicum-3  Monk's 
Hood  —  4  Toad  Stool  —  5  Henbane— 6 
Thorn  Appls. 

PLATE  XXXI. 


1  Beech   or  Squirrel  Moth  —  2  Oak 
Leaf — 3  Processionary  —  4   Apollo  — 
5  Bombyxpini— 6  Hawk  Moth— 7  Suri-         1    Water  Hemlock  —  2  Phallus  —  < 
nam  Page— S  Thistle  Bird.  >  Hemlock  —  4  Dog  Parsley  -  5  Fox 

Glove  —  6  Wolfs  Bane  —  7  Darnel. 


PLATE  XXV. 

1  Painter's  Shell  —  2  Periwinkle— 
3  Sea  Conch — 4  Neptune's  Bo\  —  5 
Pelican's  Foot  -  6  Pyrasoma  —  7  Ele- 


PLATE  XXXII. 

1  Gold  —  2  Silver  —  3  Red  Copper 
Ore  —  4  Brown  Iron  Ore  —  5  Tin  — 
6  Lead. 


CLASS    IV. 
ICHTHYOLOGrY.-FISHES. 


THIS  class,  destined  to  live  in  the  water,  differ  from 
all  other  vertebrate  animals,  by  having  gills,  instead  of 
lungs,  through  which  they  breathe.  These,  placed  on 
the  sides  of  the  neck,  consist  of  a  number  of  laminae  sus- 
pended on  arches,  through  which  are  spread  a  tissue  of 
innumerable  blood-vessels,  as  may  be  observed  by  every 
one  who  will  take  the  pains  to  examine ;  these  are  com- 
monly called  the  ears  of  fishes.  These  laminae,  connected 
with  the  cavity  of  the  mouth,  suffer  a  portion  of  the  water 
swallowed  to  escape,  or,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  creature, 
the  whole  mass.  Fishes,  however,  do  not  take  in  water 
by  breathing,  but  only  the  dissoluble  air  it  contains ;  a 
fact  easily  proved  by  observation.  If  the  supply  of  air 
contained  in  water  is  cut  off,  the  fish  die  just  as  a  bird 
or  small  animal  confined  under  a  glass  case  would,  after 
the  pure  air  is  exhausted.  Thus,  for  instance,  if  a  lake 
or  pond  should  be  frozen  over  entirely,  during  a  hard 
winter,  it  is  necessary  that  holes  should  be  cut  in  the 
ice,  or  the  fish  would  all  die.  If  a  fish  is  kept  in  a  glass 
vessel  containing  a  small  amount  of  water,  it  must  be 
frequently  renewed,  or  most  likely  the  creature  will  die, 
because  the  air  loses  its  purity ;  but  if  only  a  little  oil  is 
poured  on  the  top  of  the  water,  the  fish  will  certainly 
I* 


10  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

smother,  because  it  has  no  air ;  and  this  is  also  the  case 
in  water  from  which  the  air  has  been  driven  by  boiling. 
These  are  satisfactory  proofs  that  breathing  by  gills  is 
possible  only  in  Avater  containing  air.  The  next  question 
may  then  be,  Why  do  fish  so  readily  die  on  being  taken 
out  of  the  water  ?  there  is  still  air  to  breathe,  and  it 
may  be  more  easily  taken  into  the  gills  than  that  con- 
tained in  water.  The  answer  is  as  follows.  As  soon  as 
a  fish  is  taken  out  of  the  water,  the  coverings  of  the  fine 
laminas  of  the  gills  begin  to  lose  their  elasticity,  and,  ad- 
hering to  one  another,  prevent  the  free  circulation  of  the 
blood  through  their  minute  vessels ;  and  this  increasing 
the  longer  these  organs  are  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the 
atmosphere,  they  ere  long  become  dry,  and  the  fish  dies. 
Some  of  the  species,  perhaps  not  so  tender,  or  of  which 
the  bronchiae,  by  some  different  arrangement  of  their 
external  organs,  are  not  so  susceptible  of  becoming  dry 
quickly,  can,  by  being  surrounded  with  damp  substances, 
sustain  life  for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  Carp, 
enveloped  in  moss  and  kept  wet,  are  conveyed  great  dis- 
tances, and  can  be  preserved  alive  for  many  days  in  cel- 
lars ;  and  eels,  too,  in  damp  nights,  often  leave  the  water 
to  seek  for  food  on  land. 

The  whole  structure  of  fishes  is  as  perfectly  arranged 
to  serve  them  for  swimming  as  that  of  birds  is  adapted  for 
flying.  Living  in  an  element  of  nearly  the  same  specific 
gravity  as  their  own  bodies,  they  do  not  require  extended 
members  to  support  them  or  aid  their  movements.  The 
forward  motion  is  effected  by  the  expanded  horizontal  fins. 
The  tail,  serving  as  a  rudder,  enables  the  fish  to  direct  its 
course,  whether  upward,  downward,  right  or  left.  These 
fins,  which  represent  forefeet,  are  called  the  pectoral  fins; 
those  placed  farther  backwards  are  called  the  abdominal 


FISHES.  11 

or  ventral  fins;  the  vertical  fins  possessed  by  many, 
which  rise  up  on  the  back,  are  termed  the  dorsal,  and  are 
often  armed  with  sharp  points :  those  on  the  lower  sur- 
face of  the  body,  corresponding  to  the  dorsal,  are  desig- 
nated as  the  anal  fins ;  and  the  one  which  terminates  the 
tail,  the  caudal.  Most  of  them  have  a  sac  in  the  inte- 
rior of  their  bodies,  by  which  they  can  render  themselves 
specifically  lighter  or  heavier  than  the  water ;  this  sac, 
called  the  air  vessel  or  swimming-bladder,  can  be  com- 
pressed or  dilated  at  the  pleasure  of  the  fish,  as  it  rises 
to  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  sinks  to  its  depths.  In 
some  this  bladder  is  wanting ;  such  either  keep  near  the 
bottom,  and  can  only  rise  slowly,  by  the  aid  of  their  fins. 
It  sometimes  occurs  in  the  torrid  zone  that  fish  remain 
too  long  on  the  surface  of  the  water ;  when  this  is  the 
case,  the  sun's  rays,  falling  fiercely,  so  operate  on  the 
air  contained  in  the  swimming  bladder  that  it  can  not  be 
compressed,  and  the  poor  creatures  must  remain  where 
they  are  until  the  cool  of  the  evening,  before  they  can 
sink  to  the  bottom. 

The  figure  of  the  head  varies  in  different  species ;  the 
senses  of  seeing  and  hearing  are  acute;  some  possess 
that  of  smell  in  a  high  degree,  as  they  are  attracted  by 
strongly  odorous  bodies  at  a  considerable  distance.  The 
sense  of  taste,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  well  developed, 
as  the  tongue  is  often  osseous,  and  furnished  with  teeth. 
Their  whole  bodies  are  covered  with  scales,  or  a  parch- 
ment-like skin ;  therefore  the  sense  of  touch  is  not  very 
acute;  there  may  be  some,  having  fleshy  projections 
from  their  mouths,  that  form  an  exception;  these  are 
called  the  beard,  and  serve  as  feelers  for  groping  about 
in  the  mud  after  worms,  etc.  Their  teeth  are  of  a 
peculiar  form,  exhibiting  no  difference  as  cutting,  canine, 


12  .      NATURAL    HISTORY. 

or  molars ;  still,  from  their  figure  it  can  be  determined 
whether  the  possessor  belongs  to  the  race  of  carnivora, 
or  lives  on  vegetable  aliment. 

In  the  former  they  are  bullet-shaped,  or  sharp  and 
pointed,  sometimes  filling  the  mouth,  palate,  and  even 
disposed  all  over  the  tongue,  as,  for.  instance,  in  the  pike. 
In  others,  that  live  on  vegetables  and  worms,  they  are 
either  cartilaginous,  or  entirely  wanting,  as  in  the  carp. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  fish  ever  sleep,  as  they  keep  going 
both  night  and  day  after  bait,  but  it  has  been  clearly 
ascertained  that  they  pass  the  winter  in  a  benumbed 
state,  hidden  in  the  mud.  With  few  exceptions,  fish  lay 
eggs  which  are  called  roe  or  spawn;  the  females  are 
therefore  designated  as  spawners;  the  male,  milters. 
When  the  time  for  spawning  has  arrived,  they  leave  the 
deep  waters  and  ascend  the  shallower  streams,  either 
because  the  temperature,  being  warmer,  is  more  favor- 
able for  the  development  of  the  roe,  or  that  more  water 
plants  are  found  on  the  shores,  to  which  the  spawn  can 
adhere.  The  reproductive  powers  of  fishes  are  incredible ; 
the  roe  of  a  sturgeon  has  been  known  to  weigh  two  hun- 
dred pounds ;  each  pound  containing  thirty  thousand  eggs, 
makes  the  whole  number  found  in  the  roe  amount  to  six 
millions ;  those  of  the  stock  fish  have  been  reckoned  to 
number  nine  millions ;  those  of  the  carp  thirty  thousand ; 
herrings  forty  thousand.  This  astonishing  capability  of 
increase,  which  is  a  substantial  fact,  is  modified  by  cir- 
cumstances which  serve  to  regulate  the  number  produced 
to  a  more  proportionate  medium.  The  enemies  of  fishes 
and  their  spawn  are  innumerable ;  waterfowls,  carniver- 
ous  fishes,  reptiles,  seals,  dolphins,  the  polar  bear,  but 
especially  man,  pursue  them  unrelentingly,  and  thus  the 
myriads  of  spawn  form  the  food  of  different  species.  No 


class  of  animals  is  so  generally  used  for  food  as  fish,  as 
their  flesh  is  mostly  tender,  well  tasted,  and  considered 
wholesome ;  however,  some  of  the  salt  water  tribes,  and 
the  roe  of  the  barbel,  are,  in  many  cases,  believed  to  be 
poisonous.  The  skeleton  of  fishes  is  ordinarily  bony ; 
when  these  bones  are  found  pointed  and  sharp,  they  are 
termed  rayed  or  ridged;  and  on  this  account,  namely, 
the  species  having  spinous  fins  and  firm  bones,  are  recog- 
nized as  rayed  or  osseous  fishes.  Others,  having  the 
skeleton  cartilaginous,  and  without  those  bony  fibers,  are 
termed  cartilaginous  fishes.  In  a  few  of  the  latter  class, 
the  shark,  for  instance,  the  gill  covering  is  immovable, 
and  gives  foundation  for  a  separate  distinction.  The 
rest  are  classed  according  to  the  quality  and  disposition 
of  their  fins,  or  bodily  conformation ;  and  thus  we  find 
them  divided  into  eight  orders,  as  follows : 

FIRST  ORDER:  .  .  .  (Acanthroplerygii,)  SHARP-FINNED. —  Distin- 
guished by  having  the  dorsal  fins  covered 
with  sharp  spines,  whether  those  spinous  rays 
sustain  them  or  not. 

SECOND  ORDER :  .  .  (Malacypterigii  AMomincdes,)  SOFT-FIXXED. — 
Without  the  spinous  rays,  and  having  the 
ventral  lins  situated  behind  the  pectoral. 

THIRD  ORDER :  .  .  .  (Malacopterygii  Subbrachii,)  SOFT-FLNXED. — 
With  pectoral  fins  above  the  ventral ;  spinous 
rays  wanting. 

FOURTH  ORDER :.  .  (Malacopterygii  Apodes,)  SOFT-FISKED. — With- 
out ventral  fins,  as  the  Eel  kind. 

FIFTH  ORDER:  .  .  .  (Lapholranchii,)  NEEDLE  FISH. — With  loug, 
slender  bodies,  rcovered  with  firm  skin. 

SIXTH  ORDER:.  .  .  .  (Plectognathii,)  BULLET  FISH. — From  the  glob- 
ular form  of  their  bodies. 

SEVENTH  ORDER:.  (Sturiones,)  CARTILAGIXOUS  FISHES.— With  free 
branchiae,  as  the  Sturgeon,  etc. 

EIGHTH  ORDER:  .  .  (Selachii,)  CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES. — Branchiae 
adherent,  as  Sharks,  Lampreys,  Rays. 


14  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

FIRST    ORDER. 
OSSEOUS     FISHES  .—(Antkropteryyii.) 

The  Percoides  belongs  to  this  class.  Their  bodies  are 
covered  with  rough  scales ;  the  pectoral  fins  are  composed 
of  five  soft  rays  ;  the  jaws  and  palate  are  armed  with 
teeth  ;  the  tongue  is  smooth.  The  most  remarkable  of 
this  family  is 

The  Common  Perch  (perca  fluviatilis).  Is  about  nine 
inches  in  length — sometimes  a  foot ;  weighs  from  a  half 
to  two  pounds;  greenish-brown  above,  with  a  golden 
shimmer  on  the  sides ;  the  ventral  and  anal  fins  are  red. 
Found  in  all  the  rivers  and  ponds  of  Europe,  as  well  as 
in  Northern  Asia  and  the  United  States,  and  is  one  of 
the  best  fish  brought  to  the  table.  Their  spawn  resem- 
bles net-work.  One  perch  will  produce  two  hundred 
and  eighty  thousand  eggs.  They  swim  very  rapidly,  and 
keep  at  a  certain  depth.  Their  food  consists  of  aquatic 
insects  and  small  fish,  wherefore  they  are  very  injurious 
to  the  young  races  of  other  species.  Those  who  wish  to 
keep  them,  place  them  in  ponds  with  white  fish,  because 
the  latter  are  of  little  worth.  The  perch  is  very  tena- 
cious of  life,  and,  in  winter,  will  survive  a  journey  of 
many  miles.  If  the  lightning  flashes  on  the  water  in 
which  they  live,  they  leap  up  to  the  surface.  They  are 
easily  caught  by  an  angler  who  understands  throwing 
his  hook  to  the  proper  depth  in  which  they  swim,  as  they 
are  very  greedy,  and  catch  at  every  thing  near  them. 

The  Wolfs  Perch  (labrax  lupus)  is  remarkable  for 
having  the  gill-coverings  clothed  with  scales  and  spines. 
The  length  is  three  feet ;  weight  thirty  pounds ;  blue- 
green  above  :  white  below,  with  a  silver-like  spot  on  each 


FISHES.  15 

scale.  This  species  is  found  in  great  numbers  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  in  ancient  times  was  esteemed  as 
a  peculiar  delicacy.  It  is  a  fierce  and  ravenous  fish,  and 
bites  at  every  thing  within  its  reach.  From  this  vora- 
city, as  well  as  its  depredations  on  all  the  finny  tribes 
found  in  its  vicinity,  it  has  received  the  name  of  the 
wolf-fish.  It  sometimes  leaves  the  sea,  and  goes  up 
large  rivers.  The  sea  pike  of  South  America  resembles 
it ;  silver  white,  with  a  golden  luster  and  yellow  fins. 
It  is,  however,  greatly  preferred  as  an  article  of  food. 

The  Sand  Perch  (perca  lucioperca)  is  commonly 
one  foot  and  a  half  long  ;  silver-colored,  with  short, 
transverse  bands  on  the  back ;  the  pectoral  fins  are  red. 
This  much  valued  fish  is  found  in  the  fresh  waters  of 
North  Germany  and  Southern  Russia ;  also  in  the  Danube 
and  Caspian  Sea,  where  it  is  found  three  feet  in  length. 
It  is  a  ravenous  fish,  delights  in  deep  waters,  is  by  no 
means  hardy,  and  endures  the  winter  by  covering  itself 
in  the  sand.  The  flesh  is  better  and  harder  in  autumn 
than  at  other  seasons.  Sand  perch  are  generally  eaten 
boiled. 

The  Letter  Fish  (perca  scriba),  found  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, is  nine  inches  long ;  striped  irregularly  with  blue 
lines ;  lives  on  small  fish  and  snails.  The  Saw  Perch 
has  no  lines,  is  no  larger,  and,  like  the  above,  esteemed 
a  table  luxury. 

The  Rock  Fish,  or  Striped  Bass  (perca  labrax),  is  a 
sea  fish  that  has  the  -tongue  covered  with  asperities.  In 
most  respects  resembles  a  perch.  On  the  sides  are  par- 
allel lines,  like  narrow  ribbons,  which  give  it  the  name. 
It  abounds  on  the  Atlantic  shores  of  the  United  States, 
and  is  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food. 

The  Red  or  Claret  Perch  (anthias  sacer).  The  scales 


16  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

shine  like  gold  and  rubies  ;  on  its  back  are  green  spots  ; 
three  gold  bands  adorn  the  head.  The  naturalists  of 
early  times  tell  marvelous  tales  of  its  rapacity.  Its  flesh 
is  best  in  winter. 

The  Giant  Perch  (perga  gigas)  measures  three  feet 
in  length,  and  weighs  over  twenty  pounds ;  is  of  an  ochre 
color,  spotted  with  brown  ;  has  very  small  scales,  and  is 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  flesh  is  considered 
very  palatable. 

The  Stone  Perch  (perca  cernua)  is  found  in  all 
brooks  ;  six  inches  long,  slimy,  and  with  a  large  head ; 
greenish-brown  above,  silver  colored  and  shining  below  ; 
feeds  on  larvae  found  in  the  water  and  young  fish.  This 
fish  is  common  in  North  Germany,  and  is  much  esteemed 
on  account  of  the  excellence  of  its  flesh,  which  is  both 
wholesome  and  palatable.  Very  tenacious  of  life,  it  will 
bear  transportation  during  the  winter,  and,  although 
seemingly  frozen,  is  easily  revived.  There  is  another 
species,  peculiar  to  the  Danube,  which  resembles  the 
stone  perch,  but  is  larger. 

The  Star  Gazers  (uranoscopus  scaber),  plate  20, 
fig.  9,  are  wedge-shaped,  with  large,  flat,  angular  heads, 
which  are  defended  with  a  kind  of  mail.  The  ugly 
mouth  opens  directly  in  front,  exposing  the  sharp  teeth  ; 
the  eyes  protrude  from  the  forehead  upward,  from  which 
peculiarity  they  receive  their  name.  Measuring  ten 
inches  in  length  and  two  in  thickness,  brownish-green 
above,  pale  white  below,  they  are  sluggish  creatures,  hid- 
ing beneath  the  sea-plants,  where  they  angle  for  fish, 
which  they  take  with  their  beards.  The  flesh  is  poor  and 
bad. 

The  John  Dory  (trachinus  draco).  This  fish,  also 
called  Dorado,  is  a  foot  long,  reddish-gray,  with  blackish 


FISHES.  17 

spots,  and  found  on  the  western  coast  of  France,  the  Brit- 
ish channel,  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  rather  dreaded 
on  account  of  its  spiny  fins,  the  wounds  inflicted  by 
them  being  dangerous.  Fierce  and  very  tenacious  of 
life,  the  creature  defends  itself  boldly  when  attacked. 
The  flesh  is  good.  There  is  a  smaller  species,  whose 
thrusts  are  even  more  dreaded,  as  they  produce  inflama- 
tion,  which  is  sometimes  fatal. 

The  Surmullet  (mullus  surmuletus)  is  rather  thick 
and  bearded,  living  on  aquatic  plants  and  animals,  sel- 
dom larger  than  a  carp,  its  usual  length  is  nine  inches. 
This  fish,  as  also  the  Red  Mullet  (mullus  barbatus),  is 
much  prized  for  the  excellent  taste  of  its  flesh  and  its 
beautiful  color,  purple,  glancing  with  silver.  In  ancient 
times  it  was  celebrated  on  account  of  the  pleasure  the 
Romans  took  in  contemplating  the  changes  of  color  it 
displays  while  dying.  Exorbitant  prices  were  paid  for 
these  fish,  and,  at  entertainments,  they  were  brought  to 
the  table  alive  and  cooked  before  the  eyes  of  the  guests. 
They  are  taken  in  nets,  or  by  hooks,  baited  with  crabs. 
There  is  a  smaller  species,  which  is  also  beautiful. 

The  Gurnet  (trigla  gurnardus)  is  about  two  feet  long, 
brown-gray  with  white  spots  above,  white  below,  and 
found  in  all  the  seas  of  Europe.  It  lives  on  crabs  and 
muscles,  and  when  swimming  at  night  emits  a  phosphor- 
escent luster  ;  when  taken  from  the  water,  it  gives  a  kind 
of  growl.  The  flesh  is  used  for  food. 

The  Fly  in y  Fish,  (trigla  volitans)  have  the  pectoral 
fins  so  long  that  they  use  them  as  wings  ;  they  measure 
one  foot,  are  dark  colored,  spotted  with  blue,  orbicular 
figures  that  look  like  the  eyes,  often  seen  on  the  wings 
of  butterflies.  Their  mouths  are  filled  with  bead-shaped 
teeth,  which  cover  the  whole  inner  surface,  are  found  in 


18  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

the  southern  seas,  and  sometimes,  but  very  rarely,  in  the 
Mediterranean.  When  pursued  by  rapacious  fishes,  such 
as  the  bonita  and  others,  they  spring  into  the  air,  and 
are  able  to  maintains  flight  of  the  distance  of  a  gunshot, 
when  the  fins  become  dry,  and  they  fall  back  into  the  sea 
and  occasionally  on  the  deck  of  ships.  The  flesh  is  lean 
and  hard,  but  palatable. 

The  River  Gudgeon  (cottus  gobio)  has  a  -wedge-shaped 
body,  covered  with  scales  ;  the  head  broad,  not  unlike 
that  of  a  frog,  and  a  large  mouth  provided  with  two 
small  cirri  or  prickles.  The  gudgeons  do  not  exceed 
four  inches  in  length,  live  in  company  with  the  ground- 
ling in  spring  waters  or  mountain  streams,  darting  from 
place  to  place  with  uncommon  vigor.  They  feed  upon 
aquatic  plants  and  spawn,  are  generally  taken  with  the 
hand,  and  considered  good  eating. 

The  Sea  Gudgeon  resembles  the  above,  but  is  larger, 
being  one  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  and,  with  ahead 
covered  with  bony  knobs  and  prickles,  are  of  a  hideous 
appearance.  Many  consider  the  stings  of  the  prickles  as 
poisonous.  It  is  not  valued  as  an  article  of  food,  as  its 
flesh  is  bad. 

The  Stickleback  (gasterostus  aculeatus),  scarcely  three 
inches  long,  is  of  a  silvery  whiteness,  with  yellow  fins  ; 
on  the  dorsal  fin  are  three  spines,  on  each  of  the  abdom- 
inal two.  It  is  found  in  all  brooks  and  ponds,  is  abund- 
ant in  Europe.  The  female  hides  her  eggs  in  the  sand, 
aiid  watches  over  them.  These  fish  live  on  spawn  and 
water  insects,  but  are  seldom  preyed  upon  by  rapacious 
fishes  on  account  of  their  spines.  They  are  so  numerous 
in  North  Germany  that  the  farmers  use  them  as  compost, 
the  only  manner  in  which  they  can  be  made  serviceable. 


FISHES.  19 

as  they  are  not  fit  to  be  eaten.  There  is  a  smaller 
species. 

The  Daurade  (sparus  aurata),  one  foot  long,  is  silver 
gray,  with  a  shimmer  of  green,  of  a  lustrous  white 
below,  and  has  twenty  horizontal  lines  of  golden  bright- 
ness on  each  side.  It  inhabits  the  Mediterranean,  is  very 
fat,  and  once  a  table  delicacy  in  the  luxurious  times  of 
the  old  Romans,  is  still  esteemed  as  a  dainty.  It  feeds 
on  shellfish,  which  it  cracks  open  like  a  nut,  and  by  the 
noise  thus  made  betrays  itself  to  the  fishermen.  Very 
susceptible  to  cold,  it  betakes  itself,  in  winter,  to  the 
bottom  of  the  sea.  There  are  numerous  species  of  this 
race,  which  are  termed  ISparoidcs. 

The  ChcBtodons  (chnstodon  restrains)  are  remarkable 
for  their  long,  slender  muzzles,  open  only  at  the  end, 
resembling  a  tube.  They  measure  six  inches,  are  yel- 
lowish, but  shine  with  metallic  luster,  and  are  striped 
and  ringed  with  brown.  They  frequent  the  mouths  of 
large  rivers  in  Java,  and  are  well  known  for  their  singu- 
lar method  of  securing  their  prey.  As  soon  as  a  fly  is 
seen  to  settle  on  a  plant,  the  Archer  or  Shooting  Fish,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  swims  within  four  or  five  feet  of 
the  victim,  and,  with  a  dexterity  which  never  fails  of  its 
aim,  projects  from  its  nozzle-shaped  snout  drops  of  water, 
which  throws  the  insect  down  ;  it  is  then  at  once  seized 
upon  as  booty. 

The  Mackerel  (scomber  scomber)  is  rather  slender, 
with  small  scales,  weighs  two  pounds,  has  a  blue  back, 
marked  with  undulating  black  stripes,  is  silver-colored 
below,  has  no  swimming  bladder.  The  mackerel  is  a 
migratory  fish,  and  at  certain  seasons  abounds  on  the 
coasts  of  the  United  States  and  Europe,  and  is  taken  also 
in  great  numbers  on  the  western  coast  of  England.  Very 


20  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

voracious  and  a  determined  enemy  of  herrings,  they  fol- 
low after  these  fish  in  great  shoals  ;  therefore  they  are 
often  caught  and  sold  at  the  same  time  in  the  sea-port 
markets.  They  are  taken  in  nets,  mostly  in  the  summer 
at  spawning  time ;  these  nets,  loaded  with  lead  below, 
and  kept  afloat  by  empty  barrels  above,  and  sometimes 
more  than  a  league  in  extent,  are  cast  into  the  sea  ;  the 
meshes  are  wide  enough  to  receive  the  head  of  the  fish, 
but  arrest  and  entangle  it  by  the  gills  and  fins.  The 
fishery  is  often  conducted  by  torchlight,  and  many  hun- 
dreds are  taken  at  a  single  haul.  It  is  said  that  mack- 
erel become  blind  i,n  the  winter,  and  that,  during  the 
cold  season  they  bury  their  heads  in  the  mud,  leaving  a 
third  part  of  their  bodies  exposed.  In  a  decaying  state, 
the  mackerel  emits  a  shining  light ;  the  water  in  which 
it  has  been  boiled  possesses  the  same  phosphorescent 
property.  The  flesh  is  very  fat  and  well  tasted,  but  will 
not  bear  transportation,  except  salted,  as  it  spoils  easily. 
Mackerels  are  also  caught  by  hook  and  line. 
"^*"fThe  Tunny  (scomber  thynnus),  plate  21,  fig.  8,  is 
commonly  two  feet  in  length,  and  seven  pounds  in 
weight,  steel-gray  on  the  back,  elsewhere  silvered,  found 
in  all  the  seas,  but  abounds  in  the  Mediterranean,  where 
it  attains  to  the  length  of  a  man.  None  of  the  finny 
tribes  are  so  rapacious  as  this,  since  it  does  not  spare  its 
own  species.  The  flesh,  when  cut  in  pieces,  resembles  raw 
beef,  but  when  boiled  turns  pale  and  tastes  like  salmon. 
These  fish  are  taken  by  hook  and  line,  and  in  Sicily  in 
nets  of  very  singular  arrangement.  A  kind  of  labyrinth 
made  of  nets  is  stretched  out  vertically  in  the  sea,  and 
so  constructed  as  to  form  a  series  of  chambers,  open  from 
the  land  side  by  a  sort  of  door,  and  united  by  another 
net,  which  bars  the  passage  and  arrests  the  fishes  in  their 


21 


course  along  the  shore.  The  tunnies  first  pass  between 
the  shore  and  the  first  chamber :  having  entered  this,  the 
opening  is  closed,  and  with  loud  cries  which  bewilder  the 
poor  creatures,  the  fishermen  drive  them  into  the  laby- 
rinth, from  whence  they  can  not  escape.  The  outer 
opening  is  then  unclosed  in  order  to  admit  the  passage  of 
new  victims  ;  and  this  work  is  continued  until  the  net  is 
filled.  They  are  then  killed  with  harpoons  and  spears ; 
sometimes,  however,  they  resist  powerfully,  and  tear  the 
nets.  The  tunnies  swim  rapidly  and  perseveringly,  fol- 
lowing after  ships  for  sake  of  the  kitchen  offal.  They 
are  often  preceded  by  a  shoal  of  sardelles,  which  are 
driven  into  the  net  by  the  dolphins.  The  fishermen 
spare  the  latter  on  account  of  this  friendly  oifice.  The 
flesh  of  the  tunny  is  poisonous  as  soon  as  it  begins  to 
decay,  which  is  easily  ascertained  by  the  back  bone 
becoming  red.  This  fish  was  dedicated,  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  to  Diana ;  the  Italians  impress  its  image  on  their 
coin,  and  regard  it  as  the  emblem  of  conjugal  fidelity. 
From  the  roe  and  entrails  of  the  mackerel,  tunny,  and 
others  of  the  Scomber  tribe,  the  celebrated  fish-sauce, 
called  yantm,  wras  made ;  it  was  in  great  repute  in 
ancient  times,  but  the  manner  of  its  preparation  is  no 
longer  known. 

The  Siroj-d  Fish  (xiphias  gladius)  is  distinguished  by 
the  beak,  or  long,  sword-like  point,  which  terminates  the 
upper  jaw ;  the  scales  are  so  small  as  to  be  scarcely  dis- 
cernible. It  most  generally  measures  six  feet,  sometimes 
fifteen,  the  sword  making  one-third  of  the  length.  The 
color  is  blue  above  ;  white  below.  The  prolongation  of 
the  muzzle  is  flattened  horizontally,  and  instead  of  teeth 
the  jaws  are  furnished  with  strong  asperities.  Is  found 
in  all  the  oceans,  but  abounds  in  the  Mediterranean. 


22  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  sword  fish  mostly  swims  in  pairs,  and  lives  on  plants 
and  small  fish,  and  although  many  stories  are  told  of  the 
use  it  makes  of  its  pointed  muzzle  as  a  -weapon  of  offense, 
it  seems  scarcely  credible  that  such  formidable  blows  can 
be  given  by  it,  as  it  is  flexible,  and  seemingly  weak. 
The  flesh  is  much  prized,  and  the  fins  considered  a 
luxury. 

The  Pilot  Fish  (centronotus  ductor).  One  foot  long, 
with  four  spinous  rays  on  the  back,  like  the  stickleback; 
altogether  blue,  with  transverse  bands  of  darker  shade. 
This  beautiful  fish  is  found  in  all  the  warmer  seas,  and 
from  its  always  being  found  in  company  with  the  shark, 
probably  directed  by  the  same  instinct  to  seize  what  may 
be  thrown  overboard,  it  is  believed  to  be  the  conductor  of 
the  latter  to  the  neighborhood  of  prey.  They  live  in  the 
greatest  harmony  with  each  other.  If  a  bait  is  thrown 
to  the  shark,  the  pilot  fish  swims  first  toward  and  around 
it,  and  then  returns  to  its  companion,  as  if  to  inform 
him  of  the  qualities  of  the  examined  object.  If  the 
shark  is  token,  the  pilot  fish  remains  near  the  ship  until 
the  carcass  is  drawn  up  on  deck.  Another  species  of 
the  Centronatus  tribe,  of  a  bluish-gray  color,  and  about 
five  feet  long,  is  said  to  cater  in  the  same  manner  for  the 
tunny. 

The  Sun-fish  or  Smith  (zeus  faber).  is  smooth,  with 
a  strong  dorsal  fin ;  lives  in  the  warm  seas  ;  measures 
two  feet  in  length  ;  silver  gray,  inclined  to  yellow,  with 
a  round  black  spot  on  each  side.  This  spot  is  supposed 
to  resemble  a  coin  ;  therefore,  it  is  a  general  belief  that 
tli is  is  the  fish  in  whose  mouth  St.  Peter  found  the  trib- 
ute money.  It  receives  its  name  of  the  Smith  because 
in  the  form  of  its  bones  is  found  an  imaginary  resem- 


FISHES.  23 

blance  to  all  the  tools  used  by  blacksmiths.  Its  flesh  is 
palatable,  but  it  is  now  rarely  found. 

The  Dorado  (coryphgena  hippurus).  The  head  is 
higher  than  the  rump,  and  the  forehead  so  perpendicular 
that  the  head  resembles  that  of  a  child.  It  is  four  feet 
long,  bluish-gray  above,  green  on  the  sides ;  bright  yel- 
low below,  but  shines  all  over  with  a  golden  luster.  This 
beautiful  fish  is  found  in  all  the  oceans  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  mostly  the  former  ;  the  fishermen  call  it  the 
Gold  Fish.  It  is  extremely  voracious,  swallowing 
everything  that  comes  in  its  way,  even  nails.  It  follows 
the  flying-fish  -with  such  haste  as  to  overtake  it  as  it 
springs  into  the  air.  The  flesh  is  esteemed  a  dainty. 

The  Rapier  Fish  (trichiurus  lepturus)  is  in  form  like 
a  small  sword ;  smooth,  and  wanting  the  abdominal  and 
caudal  fins ;  the  under  jaw  is  longer  than  the  upper ;  it 
is  over  three  feet  long,  and  shines  like  silver ;  the  tongue 
is  long  and  triangular,  like  that  of  a  bird.  It  inhabits 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  is  a  good  swimmer  and  rapacious 
robber,  often  darting  so  suddenly  out  of  the  water  when 
pursuing  its  prey,  that  it  falls  upon  the  deck  of  ships ; 
its  flesh  is  good. 

The  Kiiiy  of  the  Herrings  (regalacus  g'esne),  some- 
times called  Ribbon  Fish,  is  smooth,  elongated,  and 
flattened  on  the  sides,  thus  obtaining  the  name.  It  meas- 
ures ten  feet  in  length ;  is  of  a  silvery  white,  lustrous, 
and  adorned  with  black  spots,  and,  always  swimming  in 
advance,  of  a  shoal  of  herrings,  has  been  termed  the 
king. 

The  Surycoii  (acanthurus  chirurgus)  is  small;  the 
skin  leather-like,  with  a  movable  spine,  sharp  as  a  lancet, 
on  the  cheeks  and  each  side  of  the  tail.  These  spines 
are  of  the  shape  of  a  surgeon's  lancet,  and  inflict  severe 


24  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

wounds  on  those  who  imprudently  take  hold  of  them. 
This  fish  is  about  nine  inches  in  length,  yellow  above 
and  blue  below. 

The  Climber  (anabas  testudineus)  is  a  span  long ; 
very  slimy;  green  above,  yellow  below,  with  a  great 
number  of  small  prickles  on  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
bt  anchire :  it  is  found  in  the  East  Indies,  living  in  ponds, 
ditches,  and  swamps,  where  it  feeds  on  insects.  The 
anabas  can  remain  a  long  time  out  of  water ;  creeps  to 
the  land,  arid  on  the  grass,  and  climbs  trees  by  the  aid 
of  its  strong  branchue  and  tail  it  is  supposed  in  search 
of  the  moisture  collected  by  the  leaves  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son. It  is  esteemed  a  table  dainty. 

The  Sea  Mullet  (mugill  cephalus)  measures  more 
than  a  foot,  and  weighs  about  eight  pounds ;  is  brownish- 
gray  above,  with  a  prismatic  luster  of  blue  and  gold  ; 
the  sides  are  silver-hued,  and  is  found  in  numbers  in  the 
Mediterranean,  where  it  lives  on  mud  and  worms.  The 
favorite  resort  of  this  species  is  at  the  mouths  of  rivers, 
arid  in  the  summer  time  are  taken  by  hundreds  :  fre- 
quently, however,  resisting  so  strongly  as  to  break  the 
net.  They  are  salted  and  smoked ;  the  French  make  a 
kind  of  caviare  from  the  roe.  The  sea  mullet  is  a  rapid 
swimmer,  and  can  not  be  caught  with  a  hook?  on  account 
of  its  small  mouth. 

The  Anchovies  (aterina  vcra)  are  small  sea  fish  that 
are  found  in  shoals  in  the  Mediterranean;  about  the 
thickness  of  a  finger ;  four  inches  long :  brown  above, 
silvery  below,  and  are  taken  in  great  numbers  along  the 
coast.  They  have  a  great  many  bones,  like  the  sardines, 
but  are  held  in  great  repute  as  an  article  of  food ;  there 
are  several  smaller  species,  quite  as  numerous,  all  resem- 
bling each  other. 


FISHES.  25 

The  Burbots  (blennius  vivaparous)  have  a  naked  slimy 
skin,  thick,  stumpy  heads,  and  of  a  foul  yellow  color, 
spotted  with  black ;  are  more  than  a  foot  Jong,  and  weigh 
one  pound ;  the  nostrils  are  extended  and  reed-shaped. 
These  fish,  also  called  Eel-pouts,  bring  their  young, 
living,  to  the  world,  often  to  the  number  of  three  hun- 
dred. They  inhabit  the  depths  of  the  North  and  Baltic 
Seas.  Their  flesh  is  bad ;  their  food  consists  of  the  spawn 
of  fish,  crabs,  and  worms. 

The  Sea  Vfolf  (ananichas  lupus),  plate  20,  fig.  10, 
has  a  thick,  obtuse  head,  small  scales,  and  is  slimy ;  the 
body  is  clumsy,  the  mouth  wide,  with  large  tuberculous 
teeth  ;  the  dorsal  and  anal  fins  are  very  long.  It  meas- 
ures four  feet ;  gray  above,  blue-gray  on  the  sides ;  the 
tongue  smooth  and  fleshy,  and  it  is  said  to  bite  so  fiercely 
as  to  leave  the  marks  of  its  hard  teeth  on  an  anchor. 
Shell  fish  are  its  favorite  food,  the  hardest  of  which  it- 
crushes  easily  within  its  jaws  ;  but  it  is  also  a  determined 
enemy  to  other  fish.  Ferocious  and  ravenous,  it  is  not 
only  formidable  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  deep,  but  the 
fishermen  also  dread  it,  as,  when  captured,  it  makes  a 
furious  resistance,  and  fastens  upon  everything  within  its 
reach.  It  is  found  only  in  the  northern  seas,  where  it 
deposits  its  spawn  near  the  coast.  The  flesh  is  fat  and 
solid,  but  not  well  tasted.  The  Greenlanders  use  the 
skin  to  make  bags,  etc. 

The  Gudgeons  (gobius  niger)  are  wedge-shaped  and 
slimy,  with  small  scales ;  six  inches  long ;  the  fins  of  a 
beautiful  black  ;  found  everywhere  in  Europe,  but  espe- 
cially abound  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  sea  gudgeons, 
if  they  can  not  find  crevices  in  the  rocks,  dig  canals  in 
the  mud  at  the  bottom,  and  in  spawning  time  construct  a 
roomy  dwelling  in  the  sea  grass,  with  which  these  canals 


26  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

or  galleries  communicate.  The  male  guards  the  entrance ; 
burying  his  slimy  body  in  the  cavity,  he  keeps  his  bearded 
mouth  exposed,  and  the  spawn  being  deposited,  he  keeps 
faithful  watch  over  it  for  two  months.  Owing  to  this 
custom  of  providing  a  home  for  the  young,  this  fish  is 
also  called  the  Architect,  and  is  valued  on  account  of  its 
good  flesh.  The  liver  is  considered  a  dainty.  .There  are 
several  smaller  species. 

Periophthalmus  (periophthalmus  schlosseri)  resembles 
the  foregoing  in  conformation,  has  large  teeth,  a  fleshy 
tongue,  an  obtuse  head,  soft  scales,  and  eyes  very  close 
together.  The  pectoral  fins  form  a  kind  of  arms,  the 
fins  being  on  the  end.  Its  home  is  the  Indies,  and  it  is 
found  in  great  numbers  in  Amboyna.  A  very  remark- 
able property  of  this  fish  is  that  it  can  live  on  land  as 
well  as  water  ;  mostly  lying  in  the  mud,  it  protrudes  its 
arm-like  fins,  and  these  becoming  dry,  it  can  run  like  a 
lizard.  It  feeds  on  insects  and  young  crabs. 

The  Frog  Fish  or  Sea  Devil  (lophius  piscatorius). 
This  fish  is  extremely  misshaped ;  its  large  head  is  scarce- 
ly distinguishable  from  the  body ;  the  tail  small  and 
thin.  The  sea  devils  are  without  scales ;  their  broad, 
transversely-cleft  mouths  are  furnished  with  strong  and 
pointed  teeth,  and  armed  with  long  cirri,  or  beards,  and 
on  the  shoulders  are  movable  prickles ;  the  gill-coverings 
are  sack-like,  so  that  they  can  be  used  as  cheek  pouches. 
They  measure  four  feet  in  length,  and  are  found  all  over 
Europe.  The  fishermen  kill  and  throw  them  away,  be- 
cause they  are  rapacious  and  their  flesh  not  eatable. 
They  swim  badly  on  account  of  having  no  air-bladder ; 
and  being  very  voracious,  hide  themselves  behind  water- 
plants,  lying  in  wait  for  small  fish,  which  they  take  by 
letting  their  long  beards  play  about  in  the  water  ;  these 


FISHES.  27 

cirri,  looking  like  worms,  allure  the  unsuspecting  prey, 
which  is  seized  upon  immediately.  Resembling  these, 
but  of  even  more  singular  conformation,  is 

The  Toad  or  Swell  Fish,  sometimes  called  Blower, 
which  has  the  faculty  of  inflating  its  body  like  a  bal- 
loon. 

The  iSargus  (labrus  julis),  a  kind  of  tench,  well  known 
to  the  ancient  Romans,  has  a  double  fold  on  the  lips ;  the 
teeth  in  front  are  conical ;  the  molars,  of  which  there  are 
three  rows,  are  in  form  like  paving  stones ;  is  not  more 
than  a  span  long ;  nevertheless  it  is  considered  the  hand- 
somest fish  in  Europe.  It  is  remarkable  for  a  zigzag 
stripe  of  a  brilliant  gold  color  running  along  the  sides 
the  whole  length  of  the  body  on  a  violet  ground ;  this, 
likened  to  the  badge  of  an  order,  changes  in  the  light  to 
every  prismatic  luster,  varying  from  celestial  blue  to 
silver  white,  from  the  rosy  tint  of  dawn  to  the  golden  hue 
of  sunset.  Its  food  consists  of  shell  and  other  fish. 

The  Sea  Parrot  resembles  the  sargus,  but  is  not  near 
so  beautiful. 

The  Red  Deceiver  (sparus  insidiator)  belongs  to  the 
small  family  of  menides,  which  in  form  resemble  the 
carp.  In  length  one  foot ;  red  above,  gold  color  on  the 
sides,  with  the  mouth  very  protractile.  This  muzzle, 
which  is  longer  than  the  head,  the  animal  can,  at  will, 
contract  into  a  tube,  and  use  it  for  seizing  the  small 
fish  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  found  in  the  Indian 
Ocean. 

The  Parrot  Fish  (scarus  creticus)  has  large,  smooth 
scales  ;  the  jaws  are  rounded ;  the  teeth  are  arranged 
like  mosaic  work,  and  in  size  equals  the  foregoing.  Its 
color  is  either  blue  or  red,  according  to  the  time  of 
year.  It  lives  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  was  known  to 


28  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  ancients,  who  described  it  as  living  on  sea  grass 
only,  and  was  so  affectionate  to  its  own  kind,  that  on 
one  of  the  race  being  taken,  others  were  at  once  ready- 
to  rescue. 


SECOND    ORDER. 

MALACOPTERIGEAN   ABDOMIN  ALES.— 
SOFT-FINNED. 

These  have  the  ventral  fins  suspended  under  the  ab- 
domen, behind  the  pectoral.  They  are  mostly  found  in 
fresh  waters.  To  them  belong  first 

The  Carps,  which  have  a  slightly-cleft  mouth  and 
weak  jaws,  most  frequently  without  teeth,  but  have  a 
masticatory  apparatus  in  the  back  part  of  the  palate. 
The  tongue  is  smooth.  They  have  only  one  dorsal  fin, 
and  the  body  is  covered  thickly  with  scales. 

Of  the  Cyprinidse  the  most  remarkable  is 

The  Common  Carp  (cyprinus  carpio),  a  fish  generally 
known  ;  olive-green  above,  yellow  below  ;  ordinarily  one 
foot  in  length,  and  weighs  from  two  to  three  pounds, 
although  it  sometimes  measures  four  feet,  and  reaches  a 
weight  of  seventy  pounds.  The  cirri,  or  filaments  of 
the  beard,  are  short.  Their  food  is  composed  of  all 
kinds  of  worms,  insects,  roots,  rich  earth,  etc.  This  fish 
delights  in  tranquil  waters  or  slowly-flowing  rivers. 
Towards  the  end  of  May  they  seek  a  shallow  place,  in 
which  to  deposit  their  spawn,  and  sometimes  journey  a 
long  distance  before  a  suitable  one  is  found.  If  any 
obstruction  presents  itself,  they  overleap  it  with  great 


FISHES.  29 

dexterity ;  rising  to  the  surface,  they  turn  on  one  side, 
and  bending  the  body  like  a  bow,  by  bringing  the  head 
and  tail  together,  with  a  rushing  movement  spring  over 
the  opposing  obstacle,  often  to  a  distance  of  three  and 
four  feet.  Carp  that  are  well  fed  grow  very  rapidly  and 
live  to  be  very  old ;  some,  it  is  said,  are  known  to  have 
lived  two  hundred  years.  They  are,  in  old  age,  subject 
to  disease,  which  shows  itself  in  mossy  excrescences  on 
the  head  and  back,  and  is  mostly  fatal.  The  young  are 
not  altogether  exempt  from  it,  supposed  to  be  occasioned 
by  too  much  snow  water  running  into  the  pond,  or  if 
they  are  too  long  imprisoned  under  the  ice.  They  are 
also  liable  to  an  eruption  like  the  small  pox.  On  account  ' 
of  their  being  a  profitable  article  of  commerce,  particu- 
larly in  Polish  Prussia,  carp  are  carefully  bred  in  ponds, 
ingeniously  arranged  into  divisions  and  designated  by  the 
names  of  store,  breeding,  and  fattening  ponds.  The  first 
receives  the  spawn  and  lodges  the  young  in  safety ;  is  so 
shallow  that  the  water  may  be  warmed  by  the  sun,  pro- 
vided with  water  plants,  on  which  the  eggs  may  fasten, 
and  so  situated  that  neither  frogs,  crabs,  aquatic  birds,  nor 
rapacious  fishes  can  approach.  The  young  fry  remain 
two  years  in  this  pond,  where  they  find  suitable  nourish- 
ment in  the  insects  and  their  larvae  found  there.  They 
are  then  taken  out  and  put  in  the  second-named  pond, 
the  water  of  which  is  not  pure,  and  fed  on  a  variety  of 
articles,  such  as  vegetables,  earth-mud,  dung,  etc.  It  is 
necessary  to  cut  holes  in  the  ice  during  the  winter,  that 
the  fish  may  receive  fresh  air ;  these  are  termed  "Wuhnen. 
A  better  method,  however,  is  to  let  off  a  portion  of  the 
water  under  the  ice,  so  that  a  free  current  of  pure  air 
may  pr.ss  throughout  the  whole  extent.  A  hail  storm  is  ~ 
very  injurious  to  these  fish,  therefore  the  water  ought  to 


30  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

be  renewed  immediately.  As  the  flesh  of  the  carp,  whilst 
remaining  in  this  pond,  acquires  an  unpleasant  taste,  the 
fish  are  removed  to  the  third  pool,  where  they  are  fed 
entirely  on  vegetable  aliment.  Every  six  years  these 
ponds  must  be  drawn  off  perfectly  dry,  and  cleared  of  all 
reed  grass  or  marsh  growths ;  this  done,  the  bottom  is 
sowed  with  oats,  barley,  or  other  grains,  so  that  good 
food  is  in  readiness  for  the  new  comers.  The  old  carp 
are  very  cunning  and  shy  of  taking  a  bait,  and  on  seeing 
the  young  ones  approaching  a  baited  hook,  frighten  them 
off  by  striking  them  a  hard  blow  with  their  tail.  The 
writer  once  observed,  in  a  pond  covered  with  a  roof,  a 
number  of  carp  that  seized  eagerly  on  pieces  of  bread 
thrown  them,  but  when  the  rain,  falling  from  the  eaves, 
resembled  lines  attached  to  the  bread,  the  young  were  at 
once  driven  away  by  the  old  ones,  who  were  contented  to 
watch  without  eating.  These  fish  are  taken  either  by  a 
dragnet  or  hooks  baited  with  worms.  Salt  water  does 
not  injure  them,  for  they  abound  in  the  Caspian  Sea. 
There  is  a  species,  called  S/imers,  which  are  naked  on 
the  back,  but  have  the  sides  and  under  portion  of  the 
body  covered  with  large,  shiny  scales,  from  which  they 
receive  their  name. 

The  Bastard  Carp  (cyprinus  carassius)  has  no  beard ; 
the  body  is  high,  and  of  a  yellow  brown ;  green  on  the 
back,  and  pale  yellow  below ;  weighs  four  pounds ;  feeds 
like  the  carp,  and  is  similarly  valued  and  treated. 

The  Golden  Carp  (cyprinus  auratus),  originally 
brought  from  China,  and  now  kept  by  many  in  glass 
globes  for  ornament  or  amusement,  is  about  five  inches 
long,  and  of  a  brilliant  gold  color.  These  fishes  are  fed 
on  bread  crumbs,  wafers,  hard  boiled  eggs,  etc.  They 
are  now  domesticated  in  our  garden  ponds  or  basins, 


FISHES.  31 

where  they  sometimes  grow  a  foot  long ;  swim  actively 
and  gracefully;  sometimes  they  acquire  black  spots. 
Their  flesh  is  more  savory  than  that  of  the  common 
carp.  The  smallest  of  the  cyprinidae  is 

The  Bitterling  (cyprinus  amarus) ;  greenish-yellow ; 
almost  transparent,  and  of  a  silvery  whiteness  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  hody.  Its  length  is  not  more  than 
two  inches ;  the  flesh  has  a  hitter  taste,  and  is  sometimes 
brought  to  the  table  in  mistake  for  the  groundling. 

The  Barbel  (cyprinus  barbus)  is  longer  than  the  carp  ; 
olive  green  on  the  back,  bluish  on  the  sides,  with  four 
filaments,  cirri,  on  the  lower  lip.  Mostly  one  foot  in 
length ;  is  sometimes  measures  two,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  common  as  well  as  abundant  of  the  tribe ;  lives  in 
swiftly  running  rivers,  with  gravelly  bottoms,  hiding  in 
holes  under  the  stones.  The  flesh  is  white,  and  well 
tasted ;  the  roe,  however,  is  said  to  create  pain  in  the 
stomach. 

The  Gudgeons  (cyprinus  gobio),  plate  21,  fig.  2,  are 
five  inches  long,  with  moderately-sized  heads ;  olive- 
green,  with  black  dots ;  spotted  on  the  sides  with  blue, 
and  covered  with  gold  colored  scales.  They  are  found 
in  all  the  rivers  of  Europe,  and  in  some  are  very  abun- 
dant ;  will  feed  readily  on  decaying  carcasses :  never- 
theless their  flesh  is  eaten,  and  esteemed  as  being  tender 
and  palatable. 

The  Tenches  (cyprinus  tinea)  have  very  small  scales, 
and  are  slimy;  resemble  the  carp;  are  more  than  a 
foot  in  length ;  the  fins  are  violet  color.  These  fish  live 
in  stagnant  waters,  and  feed  on  the  same  aliment  as  the 
carp ;  if  removed  from  the  muddy  pool  to  clear  water, 
so  as  to  lose  the  bad  taste  acquired  in  the  foul,  their 


32  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

flesh  is  readily  eaten,  although  less  esteemed  than  that 
of  the  carp. 

The  Red  Bream  (cyprinus  rutilus)  is  rather  broad ; 
very  scaly ;  dark  green  above,  silver  white  on  the  sides ; 
eyes  and  fins  cinnibar  red ;  its  length  seldom  exceeds  a 
foot.  It  is  a  timid  and  cunning  fish,  darting  deep  into 
the  water  on  the  approach  of  any  one ;  its  food  consists 
of  aquatic  plants,  worms,  etc.  It  is  mostly  taken  by  a 
hook  baited  with  a  dragon-fly ;  the  flesh  is  altogether 
inferior,  and  very  bony. 

The  Common  or  Pale  Bream  (cyprinus  brama). 
Over  one  foot  and  a  half  in  length ;  body  large,  conical, 
and  covered  with  scales;  sharp  on  the  back:  grayish- 
blue  above,  yellow- white  below ;  keeps  in  deep  waters, 
and  is  so  shy  that  it  disappears  at  the  slightest  noise ;  its 
flesh  is  white,  and  much  esteemed. 

The  Roach  (cyprinus  leuciscus)  is  from  four  to  six 
inches  long ;  olive-green  above,  silvery,  with  a  yellowish 
tint  on  the  sides,  the  ventral  fins  red.  It  is  a  common 
fish,  the  flesh  very  white  and  tender,  but  so  full  of  bones 
that  it  is  little  valued,  and  therefore  sold  very  cheap. 

The  Bleak  or  Blay  (cyprinus  alburnus),  only  five 
inches  long,  is  thin,  and  covered  with  loosely  placed  sil- 
very scales ;  bluish-green  on  the  back ;  found  every- 
where in  Europe,  and  more  used  as  bait  than  an  article 
of  diet.  The  nacreous  substance  winch  gives  brilliancy 
to  the  scales,  is  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  false 
pearls.  For  this  purpose  the  scales,  which  are  easily 
detached,  are  taken  from  the  fish,  placed  in  water,  and 
rubbed  until  the  silvery  substance  which  gives  them  their 
metallic  luster  is  removed ;  it  is  then  introduced  as  a  lin- 
ing to  clear  glass  beads,  and  gives  them  the  appearance 
of  the  finest  mother  of  pearl. 


The  Loaches  or  Groundlings  (cobitus  barbatula)  are 
not  longer  than  a  finger ;  yellowish,  clouded  with  brown ; 
are  also  called  Suckers,  from  the  peculiar  form  of  their 
mouths ;  the  upper  lip  is  armed  with  six  cirri  or  beards. 
They  live  in  clear  brooks  with  gravelly  bottoms ;  are 
common  both  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  and  are 
esteemed  for  the  palatable  food  they  furnish.  Suckers 
are  in  season  from  Christmas  to  Easter.  They  are 
rather  tender,  and  easily  killed ;  therefore  they  are  kept 
in  ponds,  and  fed  with  such  aliment  as  is  suitable,  which 
is  placed  in  holes  made  in  the  bottom.  Water  rats  are 
their  greatest  enemies.  In  the  United  States  they  do 
not  receive  any  care. 

The  Smerlin  or  Mud  Loach  (cobitis  fossilis),  is 
about  a  foot  in  length,  has  four  cirri  on  the  upper  lip, 
and  six  on  the  lower ;  of  a  blackish  color,  striped  with 
yellow.  It  is  almost  peculiar  to  north  Germany,  but  by 
no  means  abundant;  sometimes,  but  very  rarely,  it  is 
found  in  south  Germany.  This  fish  buries  itself  in  the 
mud  during  the  winter,  and  if  the  water  in  the  brooks 
dries  up  in  the  summer,  it  remains  hidden  in  the  mire  for 
several  months,  coming  forth  as  brisk  as  ever  as  soon  as 
streams  are  renewed.  Although  this  species  deposit  a 
great  many  eggs,  they  increase  but  slowly;  weak  and 
altogether  defenseless,  they  become  the  prey  of  all  other 
fish;  crabs  are  the  most  inveterate  of  their  enemies. 
They  feed  mostly  on  the  larvae  of  insects.  On  the 
approach  of  a  storm  or  threatening  of  rain,  they  rise  to 
the  top  of  the  water,  and  are  therefore  considered  as 
infallible  barometers.  They  inhale  a  great  deal  of 
atmospheric  air,  and  when  taken  out  of  the  water  utter 
a  whistling  note,  which  may  proceed  from  anger  or 
pain. 

2* 


34  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  Common  Pikes  (cxos  lucius),  plate  21,  fig.  7, 
have  an  oblong,  broad,  depressed  muzzle ;  strong  teeth, 
and  measures  several  feet  in  length ;  are  blackish  above, 
gray  on  the  sides,  with  yellow  dots ;  the  young  are  green, 
and  therefore  termed  grass  pike.  The  pike  is  found  in 
all  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  Europe  and  North  America, 
and,  being  most  voracious  and  destructive,  is  the  king  and 
tyrant  of  all  the  fresh  waters.  Bold  as  greedy,  it  devours 
with  avidity  frogs,  birds,  water  rats,  snakes,  and  all  fishes 
that  come  in  its  way.  Fishes  with  sharply  rayed  dorsal 
fins,  which  they  can  not  readily  swallow  living,  are  held 
between  its  strong  teeth  until  they  are  dead.  The 
stickling  is  the  only  one  of  the  finny  tribes  which  is 
spared  by  the  pike,  and  this  not  always,  for  it  is  some- 
times seized  upon  by  an  inexperienced  young  one,  and 
mostly  killed.  The  growth  of  these  fishes  is  very  rapid, 
in  their  third  year  measuring  two  feet,  in  their  sixth 
three,  and  in  their  twelfth  four.  In  spawning  time, 
which  is  in  April,  it  is  said  they  become  partially  blind ; 
they  can  then  be  taken  very  easily  by  the  hand ;  the 
places  mostly  chosen  as  safe  spots  for  the  eggs,  are  shal- 
lows overgrown  with  reeds.  The  manner  of  fishing  for 
pike  is  either  by  the  hook  or  by  spearing  them ;  the  first 
is  baited  either  with  a  small  live  fish,  or  an  artificial 
one,  ma.de  of  brass,  with  red  eyes  ;  this,  glittering  in  the 
moonshine,  is  very  attractive,  and  they  take  it  readily.  - 

The  Romans  held  the  flesh  of  the  pike  rather  in  con- 
tempt ;  at  the  present  day,  however,  it  is  much  esteemed, 
and  in  Europe  they  are  frequently  kept  in  ponds  and  fed 
on  white  fish  and  carrion.  The  bones  of  the  skull  are 
most  ingeniously  arranged,  and  many  of  the  superstitious 
pretend  to  discover  in  them  the  form  of  the  instruments 
used  in  the  crucifixion. 


FISHES.  35 

The  Horned  Pikes  (exos  belone)  are  very  long  and 
slender,  and  recognized  by  their  oblong,  bony-plated 
heads,  wide  jaws,  and  small  teeth.  They  measure  about 
two  feet  in  length,  are  bluish-black  above,  green  and 
gold  with  a  shimmer  of  blue  on  the  sides,  and  silvery 
below.  The  horned  pike  lives  in  all  the  seas,  and  comes 
to  the  shore  with  the  mackerel,  and  being  very  voracious, 
often  springs  out  of  the  water  to  seize  whatever  comes 
within  its  reach  in  the  shape  of  prey.  These  fishes  are 
taken  by  the  spear,  mostly  at  night  by  the  light  of  flam- 
beaux. The  flesh,  lean  and  hard,  is  used  only  for  bait ; 
the  bones  are  green.  It  is  also  known  by  the  name  of 
the  sea  pike,  garfish,  spitfish,  and  billfish,  receiving  the 
latter  name  from  its  bill-shaped  muzzle. 

The  Flying  Fishes  (exocoetus  volitans)  are  broad- 
shouldered  and  remarkable  for  the  excessive  length  of 
their  pectoral  fins.  They  are  brown  on  the  back,  silvery 
below,  and  measure  about  one  foot,  are  found  in  all  the 
oceans  near  the  equator,  and  not  only  spring  up  out  of 
the  water  to  escape  some  enemy  or  barely  to  fall  back 
again,  but  their  fins  or  wings  with  which  they  really 
cleave  the  air,  serves  to  sustain  them  in  their  flight  for  a 
short  time.  They  rise  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet  above 
the  surface,  and  can  maintain  a  horizontal  course  for  a 
distance  of  three  hundred  feet.  Swimming  in  shoals, 
several  thousand  will  rise  up  at  once,  and  falling  on  the 
decks  of  ships,  are  captured  by  the  crew,  and  furnish  not 
only  an  excellent  feast,  but  are  ample  food  for  curiosity. 
It  is  a  beautiful  sight  to  watch  them  as  they  rise  above 
the  water ;  for,  like  a  flock  of  sparrows  fluttering  from 
tree  to  tree,  so  do  the  flying  fishes  fly  from  wave  to  wave, 
not,  however,  pursuing  a  course  of  pleasure,  but  seeking 
to  escape  from  a  voracious  enemy. 


36  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  Silurus  (silurus  glanis),  plate  20,  fig.  4,  is 
recognized  by  its  naked  skin  and  broad  mouth,  armed 
with  six  barbed  cirri,  of  which  the  upper  two  are  longer 
than  the  others.  The  head  is  broad,  the  back  raised ; 
the  color  dark  green  above,  on  the  sides  the  same,  spotted 
with  black,  the  under  surface  yellowish.  This  fish  in- 
habits all  the  streams  and  lakes  in  Northern  Europe  and 
Asia.  Its  common  size  is  three  feet,  but  it  often  grows 
to  six  feet  in  length,  and  its  weight  exceeds  a  hundred 
pounds.  It  swims  slowly,  as  its  fins  are  disproportion- 
ately small,  and,  instead  of  pursuing  or  seeking  after 
prey,  lies  in  ambush,  waiting  its  approach.  Two  are 
mostly  found  together,  and  quietly  floating  near  the 
shore,  watch  the  other  fish  that  come  by  night  to  their 
spawning-places,  and  swimming  stealthily  round  the  un- 
suspecting victims,  seize  them  before  they  have  an  oppor- 
tunity to  escape.  They  are  taken  with  the  hook  and 
line.  Their  flesh  is  white,  juicy,  and  without  bones; 
their  growth  is  very  tardy,  and  so  tenacious  of  life  that 
they  are  very  hard  to  kill. 

The  Cat  Fish  belongs  to  this  species. 

The  Cuirassier  (cataphractus  callichthys)  is  covered 
entirely  with  bony  plates,  resembling  a  coat  of  mail,  has 
four  cirri,  very  small  teeth,  and  the  pectoral  fin  has  a 
strongly  articulated  spine  for  the  first  ray.  The  color  is 
bluish-green  ;  the  mouth  has  a  peculiar  structure,  some- 
thing like  that  of  the  frog.  Its  length  is  scarcely  nine 
inches,  lives  in  the  brooks  of  South  America,  and  when 
the  water  dries  up,  creeps  into  the  mud.  The  flesh  is 
much  esteemed,  and  for  making  soup  is  considered  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  turtle. 

The  Malapterurus  (silurus  electricus)  has  a  very 
broad  head  and  slender  body ;  it  resembles  the  toad  fish 


FISHES.  37 

or  sea  devil ;  its  skin  is  slimy,  of  a  gray  color,  spotted 
with  black,  and  has  on  its  lip  six  cirri,  or  filamentous 
beards.  It  is  found  in  Egypt  and  Senegambia,  and  has 
the  power  of  giving  strong  electric  shocks.  Its  flesh  is 
palatable.  The  Arabs  call  it  raasch,  thunder. 

The  Salmon  (salmo  salar)  is  recognized  by  a  very  wide 
mouth,  completely  armed  with  strong  teeth.  The  upper 
jaw  in  the  male  is  hooked,  the  lower  curved  ;  blue-gray 
is  the  color  of  the  back  and  sides,  mostly  spotted  with 
black  ;  the  under  surface  is  silvery.  These  fishes  are 
found  in  all  the  Arctic  seas,  whence  they  ascend  the 
large  rivers  in  great  shoals  every  spring,  where  they 
remain  during  the  summer  to  deposit  their  spawn,  and, 
like  the  birds  of  passage,  always  return  to  the  same 
place,  which  their  instinct  teaches  them  how  to  find  ;  in 
winter  they  return  to  the  sea.  The  salmon  delights  in 
rapid  streams  with  gravelly  bottoms,  swimming  in  the 
same  order  observed  by  wild  geese  as  they  fly,  namely, 
in  a  triangle,  the  females  in  front,  the  males  in  the  rear, 
they  hold  their  course  directly  in  the  middle  of  the 
stream,  and,  as  they  swim  very  rapidly,  make  consid- 
erable noise.  The  noise  of  a  steamboat  or  sawmill,  the 
presence  of  glittering  objects,  or  bright  colors,  such  as  a 
house  painted  red,  will  drive  them  away.  They  press  up 
the  rivers  to  a  great  distance,  even  for  hundreds  of  miles. 
The  young  grow  very  rapidly,  so  that  in  their  sixth 
year  they  will  weigh  twelve  pounds.  The  best  season 
for  catching  salmon  is  in  the  spring,  as  they  are  then 
fattest ;  they  feed  on  small  fish  and  water  insects.  The 
flesh  is  reddish,  and,  much  esteemed,  is  eaten  fresh  or 
salted  and  smoked.  Salmon  will  not  live  in  fish  troughs. 
They  are  taken  in  bow  or  salmon  nets  of  peculiar  con- 
struction, and,  as  in  their  peregrinations  they  can  clear 


38  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

all  obstacles,  even  a  cataract,  at  a  leap,  so  they  often 
escape  from  the  net.  They  are  much  troubled  by  a 
small  -worm  which  harbors  in  the  gills. 

The  Huco  (salmo  hucho)  is  a  smaller  species  and  pecu- 
liar to  the  Danube. 

The  Lake  or  Salmon  Trout  (salmo  lacustris)  is  nearly 
as  large  as  the  river  salmon,  being  mostly  two  feet  long, 
and  weighing  eight  pounds.  Its  color  is  the  same,  but 
spotted  irregularly  with  red.  This  fish  is  very  common 
in  the  lakes  of  Switzerland,  but  in  spawning  time,  mi- 
grates up  the  rivers.  The  flesh,  which  is  reddish,  turns 
a  golden  yellow  when  cooked,  and  is  much  esteemed. 
The  manner  of  taking  it  is  either  by  the  hook,  seine,  or 
bow  net.  Lake  trout  feed  on  small  fish,  spawn,  worms, 
etc. 

The  Common  Trout  (salmo  fario)  is  the  smallest  of 
the  salmon  family,  measures  from  seven  to  ten  inches, 
weighs  half  a  pound,  is  olive-green  on  the  back,  green- 
ish-yellow on  the  sides,  the  under  surface  golden  yellow, 
and  sprinkled  all  over  with  small  beautiful  black  and  red 
spots.  When  the  golden  color  predominates,  they  are 
called  the  golden  trout.  Their  teeth  are  many  and 
pointed ;  living  in  the  clear  brooks  and  mountain  streams, 
they  swim  rapidly,  and,  like  the  salmon,  overleap  all 
hindrances.  The  larvae  of  insects,  worms,  snails,  young 
fish,  etc.,  serve  the  trout  for  food;  sometimes  they  will 
seize  on  a  water  snake.  The  manner  of  fishing  for  trout 
is  by  a  small  seine,  bow  net,  or  hook  and  line.  The 
English  mostly  choose  the  latter,  baiting  the  hook  with 
an  artificial  fly,  made  of  silk  and  horse  hair ;  this  bait, 
held  just  above  the  surface  of  the  water,  is  a  sufficient 
lure  for  the  fish  to  spring  at.  As  they  not  unfrequently 
remain  stationary  with  their  heads  up  against  the  stream, 


FISHES.  39 

it  is  possible  to  shoot  them.  Trout  are  sometimes  kept  in 
ponds,  where  they  are  fed  with  bits  of  liver,  small  fish,  etc., 
but  they  can  not  live  unless  the  pool  is  kept  pure  by  a 
constant  supply  of  spring  water.  The  flesh  is  very  ten- 
der, well  tasted,  and  wholesome.  Found  in  all  the  north- 
ern States. 

The  Salmon  Trout  (salmo  salvelinus),  plate  21,  fig. 
6,  is  about  the  same  size  as  a  trout;  brown  above,  white 
on  the  sides,  brilliant  yellow  below,  and  is  found  in  all 
the  lakes  of  Styria,  Tyrol,  and  Switzerland.  These,  the 
finest  of  all  the  fresh  water  fishes,  are  taken  either  in 
nets,  or  by  hook  and  line. 

The  Chinese  Dart  Fish  (tachysurus  sinensis),  plate 
20,  fig.  1,  is  remarkable  for  its  large  dorsal  fin;  of  a 
green  color  above,  the  abdominal  and  caudal  fins  brown. 
It  inhabits  fresh  waters,  and  is  found  in  all  the  lakes  in 
China;  swims  very  rapidly,  and  as  this  movement  is 
performed  by  a  sudden  stroke  of  the  tail,  it  has  received 
its  name  of  Dartfish. 

The  Herring  (clupea  harengus),  plate  21,  fig.  3,  are 
about  a  foot  in  length ;  two  inches  broad ;  have  weak 
teeth ;  the  upper  surface  of  the  body  bluish -black,  the 
under  silvery.  They  inhabit  the  northern  seas,  and 
migrate  towards  the  south,  forming  vast  and  dense  shoals, 
which,  arriving  on  the  coasts,  cause  the  water  to  shine 
with  metallic  brightness.  This  emigration  commences 
in  March  and  continues  until  May,  during  which  time 
they  are  taken  irt  incalculable  numbers.  They  feed  on 
spawn,  worms,  and  small  maritime  animals. 

When  the  main  body  of  this  phalanx  is  arrived,  the 
fishermen  are  ready  prepared  to  give  them  a  proper 
reception,  and,  by  nets  made  for  the  occasion,  take, 
sometimes,  two  thousand  barrels  at  a  single  draught. 


40  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Those  containing  neither  milt  nor  roe  are  designated  by 
a  peculiar  name,  are  very  fat,  but  must  be  eaten  whilst 
fresh,  as  they  will  not  keep.  The  others  are  termed 
Full  Herrings.  The  art  of  curing  herrings  was  dis- 
covered in  Holland,  at  an  early  time,  and  even  to  this 
day  the  Dutch  herrings  are  considered  the  best.  Very 
often  these  fish  are  salted  on  board  the  boats,  with  coarse 
sea  salt,  but  on  landing,  the  barrels  are  unpacked,  and 
resalted ;  the  next  process  is  that  of  smoking ;  they  are 
then  called  Red  herrings.  To  effect  this,  the  fish  are 
hung  in  rows  by  their  heads,  on  long  rods  or  poles; 
these  are  placed  in  rows,  often  to  the  number  of  twelve 
hundred  at  a  time,  in  a  kind  of  drying-house,  and 
smoked  over  a  fire  made  of  dry  brush  or  twigs.  Her- 
rings are  best  to  be  eaten  fresh,  but  as  they  spoil  readily, 
they  can  not  be  transported  in  that  state  to  any  distance. 
In  order,  however,  to  preserve  their  original  freshness  as 
much  as  possible,  they  are  what  is  termed  'marinated — 
that  is,  soaked  in  milk,  in  order  to  extract  the  salt,  and 
afterwards  laid  in  oil  and  vinegar,  highly  spiced.  The 
wonderful  increase  of  these  fish  borders  on  the  marvel- 
ous. It  is  reckoned  that  a  thousand  millions  are  taken 
every  year;  as  many  more  perish  by  the  pursuit  of 
rapacious  fishes,  and  yet,  in  their  .annual  returns,  they 
seem  to  suffer  no  diminution. 

Resembling  the  herrings,  and  scarcely  less  numerous, 
on  the  coast  of  England,  are  the  Pilchards.  They  are, 
however,  fatter,  and  altogether  preferable. 

The  Sardelle  or  Sardine  (clupea  sardina),  a  species 
of  small  herring,  only  six  and  a  half  inches,  never  reach- 
ing a  span  in  length,  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
on  the  coasts  of  France,  and  especially  of  Sardinia. 
During  winter  it  keeps  in  the  depths  of  the  sea,  but 


FISHES.  41 

about  the  month  of  June  draws  near  the  shore  in  immense 
shoals.  As  many  as  forty  and  fifty  thousands  are  taken 
at  a  single  cast  of  the  net,  and  when  salted  and  cured 
are  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  anchovy  resem- 
bles the  sardine,  forms  also  an  article  of  commerce,  and 
is  found  on  the  coasts  of  France  and  England. 


THIRD     ORDER. 
MALACOPTERYGIANS,  WITH  PECTORAL  FINS. 

This  order  is  distinguished  by  the  situation  of  the 
ventral  fins,  which  are  placed  beneath  the  pectoral. 

The  Cods  (gadus  morrhua)  have  thin,  soft  scales; 
naked  heads ;  the  ventral  fins,  sharpened  to  a  point,  are 
attached  under  the  throat;  they  measure  from  two  to 
three  feet,  weigh  about  twenty  pounds,  and  have  a  small 
scirrus  on  the  lower  jaw.  They  are  found  in  the  ocean, 
between  the  fortieth  and  sixtieth  degrees  of  north  lati- 
tude, in  fathomable  waters,  and  feed  on  shell  fish,  worms, 
crabs,  herrings,  etc.  They  cast  their  spawn  in  winter, 
and  the  necessity  of  providing  for  their  subsistence  causes 
them  to  approach  the  shore,  where  they  are  caught  either 
with  hook  and  line,  or  in  nets.  Catching  and  preparing 
Codfish  are  important  branches  of  maritime  industry ; 
ships  are  fitted  out  for  the  sole  purpose  of  taking  them, 
and  so  numerous  are  they  in  those  northern  waters,  that 
five  and  six  thousand  are  captured  in  the  space  of  two  or 
three  weeks. 

These  fish  are  prepared  for  preservation  in  three  differ- 


42  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ent  ways.  When  dried  in  the  sun  without  being  salted, 
they  are  termed  Stock  Fish ;  when  simply  salted,  the 
commercial  term  is  Green  Cod ;  but  when  salted  and 
dried  are  known  as  Dry  Cod.  The  heads,  which  are 
always  cut  off,  are  gathered  up  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
coast,  and  eaten  fresh,  or  else  dried  and  salted,  and 
served  as  food  for  cattle.  The  sound,  or  swimming- 
bladder,  supplies  an  excellent  isinglass.  The  liver  is 
suffered  to  become  slightly  decayed,  and  the  oil,  known 
as  Cod  Liver  Oil,  is  expressed,  which  in  many  respects, 
and  for  most  purposes,  is  preferred  to  the  common  sperm 
oil.  The  roe  is  salted  and  used  as  bait  in  catching  sar- 
dines. The  number  of  eggs  these  fish  produce  is  incred- 
ible ;  four  millions  have  been  counted  in  one  roe. 

The  Hakes  (gadus  merlucius),  are  only  two  feet  in 
length,  very  slender,  and  quite  as  abundant  as  the  cod. 
They  are  extremely  voracious,  and  are  usually  found  in 
pursuit  of  herring  and  mackerel  shoals.  The  flesh  is 
prepared  like  that  of  the  cod,  but  less  esteemed ;  when 
salted  and  dried  it  also  receives  the  name  of  stock  fish. 
The  back  is  gray,  white  on  the  sides,  and  so  abundant 
that  a  thousand  are  often  taken  in  one  night. 

The  Haddocks  (gadus  aeglevinus)  are  very  numerous 
in  the  northern  seas  ;  from  two  to  three  feet  long ;  brown- 
ish above,  silvery  below ;  generally  found  within  a  mile 
from  the  coast,  and  lives  on  shell  fish,  crabs  and  herrings. 
They  are  taken  as  follows :  a  great  number  of  hooks 
baited  with  sea  worms,  are  fastened  on  a  rope  nearly  a 
mile  long,  and  kept  afloat  by  means  of  an  empty  tun ; 
they  seize  the  bait,  and  are  thus  captured.  Their  flesh 
is  white,  solid,  and  very  palatable ;  there  is  a  smaller 
species  called  the  Dorsch  (gadus  dorca). 

The  Lings  (gadus  lota),  plate  21,  fig.  5,  are  com- 


FISHES.  43 

monly  one  foot  long,  and  weigh  two  pounds  ;  their  skins 
are  without  scales,  and  slimy,  like  the  eel;  marbled 
black  and  yellow;  the  heads  are  broad  and  frog-like. 
They  are  the  only  fishes  of  the  Gadoides,  that  ascend 
rivers  into  fresh  waters,  where  they  hide  in  holes  and 
under  stones,  lying  in  wait  for  their  prey,  which  they 
find  in  small  fish  or  water  insects.  Winter  is  their 
spawning  time ;  the  young  grow  very  rapidly ;  are  by 
no  means  tender,  and  very  tenacious  of  life ;  can  be  kept 
alive  in  troughs  of  fresh  water,  if  fed  on  the  viscera  of 
animals.  The  flesh  is  white,  has  but  few  bones,  and  is 
very  palatable. 

The  most  remarkable  of  this  order  are  the  Pleuro- 
nectes,  which  comprises  what  are  called  Flat  fishes,  and 
have  the  body  very  much  compressed  laterally,  and  pro- 
portionally elevated  vertically ;  never  swim  perpendicu- 
larly, but  always  on  one  side.  Both  eyes  are  placed  on 
one  side;  the  nostrils  on  the  opposite;  they  have  no 
swimming-bladder,  therefore  they  mostly  lie  on  the  bot- 
tom. They  feed  on  snails,  crabs,  and  worms. 

The  principal  of  this  family  is 

The  Turbot  (pleuronectes  maximus)  is  about  eight 
feet  long,  and  weighs  two  pounds  ;  brown,  marbled  with 
yellow.  The  manner  of  fishing  for  turbot  is  either  by 
spearing  the  creature,  as  it  is  seen  lying  on  the  bottom, 
or  with  hooks  baited  with  lampreys.  The  flesh  is  very 
good. 

The  Flounders  (pleuronectes  flesus)  are  over  a  foot 
in  length,  greenish-yellow  and  black,  are  found  in  the 
northern  and  eastern  seas,  and  often  come  into  the  neigh- 
borhood of  large  rivers,  where  they  bury  themselves  up 
to  the  head  in  sand.  They  are  hardy,  and  will  bear  a 
transportation  of  many  miles  without  injury. 


44  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

The  Sole  (pleuronectes  solea)  has  the  shape,  and  is 
about  the  size  of  a  common  shoe  sole.  The  color  is  an 
olive-brown  ;  is  rather  abundant  throughout  Europe,  and 
found  mostly  at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

The  other  genera  belonging  to  this  order  are 

The  Lump  Fish  or  Sea  Owl  (cyclopterus  lumpus)  is 
remarkable  that  the  ventral  and  pectoral  fins  are  united 
in  the  form  of  an  oval  and  concave  disc ;  this  is  composed 
of  movable  plates,  by  the  assistance  of  which  the  animal 
can  attach  itself  with  vast  force  to  anything  that  it  pleases 
to  adhere  to.  It  is  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length  ; 
broad,  dark  gray  above,  yellowish  below ;  lives  on  mol- 
lusca,  and  is,  itself,  the  prey  of  rapacious  fishes.  The 
flesh  of  the  sole  is  very  palatable,  therefore  it  is  preferred 
as  being  chief  of  the  family  of  Discoboli. 

The  Sucking  Fish  (echeneis  remora)  is  wedge-shaped, 
has  a  viscid  skin  without  scales,  and  remarkable  for  a 
kind  of  disk,  which  covers  the  head.  This  is  composed, 
of  a  number  of  movable  cartilaginous  plates,  by  the 
assistance  of  which  it  can  attach  itself  to  different  bodies. 
It  was  once  believed  that  this  fish,  by  its  peculiar  power 
of  suction,  was  able  to  arrest  the  fastest  sailing  vessel  in 
its  course.  Its  flesh  is  not  eaten. 


FOURTH    ORDER. 

MALACOPTERYGII  APODA,  OR   SOFT-FINNED 
WITHOUT  ABDOMINALES. 

All  the  fishes  of  this  order  have  an  elongated,  serpent- 
like  form ;  are  slightly  scaly,  with  skins  which  are  thick, 
soft,  and  viscid. 


FISHES.  45 

The  Common  Eels  (muraena  anguilla),  plate  20,  fig. 
5,  have  a  snake-like  form,  are  about  four  feet  long,  and 
sometimes  weigh  above  six  pounds.  Their  color  is  black- 
ish-green, and  they  are  found  in  all  rivers  and  lakes  in 
Europe  and  America ;  more  abundantly,  however,  in 
the  northern  than  southern  climates.  By  day  they  keep 
buried  in  the  mud  or  lie  concealed  in  holes,  which  they 
excavate  near  the  shore ;  these  are  extensive  and  have 
three  openings.  At  night  they  issue  forth  in  search  of 
prey,  which  consists  of  worms,  insects,  small  fish,  spawn, 
and  even  carrion.  In  wet  weather  they  occasionally 
make  some  journeys  on  the  land,  for  instance,  into  pea- 
fields  ;  by  taking  advantage  of  these  times  and  strewing 
the  shore  with  dry  ashes,  through  which  the  eels  crawl 
with  great  difficulty,  they  are  easily  captured.  In  the 
spring  they  abandon  their  fresh  water  homes  and  go  to 
the  sea,  where  they  deposit  their  eggs.  During  winter 
they  bed  themselves  in  holes,  and  continue  throughout 
the  cold  season  in  a  state  of  rest.  Several  hundreds  are 
often  found  together.  The  usual  manner  of  catching 
eels  is  by  having  a  kind  of  basket  at  the  end  of  a  mill- 
race.  The  so-called  fish-basket  is  thus  arranged  :  some 
beams  are  laid  obliquely  in  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  the 
ends  of  which  lead  to  the  basket  at  the  end  of  the  race. 
The  eels  crawl  mostly  on  the  bottom,  and  thus,  instead  of 
surmounting  those  beams,  pass  easily  into  a  snare.  Their 
tenacity  of  life  is  remarkable,  and  when  full  grown,  they 
are  so'  strong,  that,  it  is  said,  a  stroke  from  one  of  them 
can  break  a  man's  arm.  As  they  are  very  hard  to  hold 
on  account  of  their  slippery  skins  and  great  agility,  it  is 
necessary  to  rub  the  hands  in  dry  ashes  and  seize  the  fish 
by  the  head  and  tail  and  bend  the  two  extremities  to- 
gether ;  thus  they  can  not  strike.  The  flesh  of  the  eel 


46  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

is  esteemed  by  many  as  palatable,  and  commonly  used  as 
an  article  of  food. 

The  Sea  or  Conger  Eel  (mursena  conger),  about  six 
feet  long,  is  gray,  thick  as  a  man's  arm,  has  a  large 
mouth  with  sharply-pointed  teeth,  and  inhabits  the  Eu- 
ropean seas.  It  preys  upon  snails  and  crabs.  The  flesh 
is  eaten  and  much  esteemed.  A  smaller  species,  white, 
and  marbled  with  black,  is 

The  MurcencB  (muraenae),  which  was  so  highly  esteemed 
by  the  old  Romans.  Vidius  Pollio,  a  friend  of  the  Em- 
peror Augustus,  but  a  monster  of  barbarity  and  a  great 
epicure,  used  to  have  his  slaves  thrown  into  the  eel  vats 
to  be  devoured  by  the  mursenae,  and  insisted  the  flesh  was 
greatly  improved  by  the  banquet  on  human  flesh. 

The  Electric  Eel  (gymnotus  electricus)  is  without 
scales  and  wanting  the  dorsal  fins .;  the  head  is  flat  and 
frog-like ;  length,  from  two  to  three  feet ;  color,  dirty- 
brown,  thinly  spotted  with  yellow.  It  has,  especially 
when  irritated,  the  power  of  giving  severe  electric  shocks, 
which  are  sufficiently  potent  to  kill  a  horse,  and  as  the 
benumbing  shock  of  this  singular  creature  is  transmis- 
sible by  water,  a  journey  in  which  the  traveler  has  to 
wade  through  fords,  is  rather  dangerous.  When  it  has 
given  repeated  shocks  to  animals  or  fishes,  it  becomes 
exhausted,  and  requires  a  period  of  rest  before  it  regains 
its  electric  power.  At  this  time,  by  means  of  silken 
lines,  it  can  be  taken  without  danger.  It  is  found  in  the 
fresh  water  streams  and  lakes  of  South  America,  and 
feeds  on  all  kinds  of  fishes,  which  it  first  benumbs  with 
its  electric  stroke.  The  flesh  is  eaten  and  considered 
good. 

The  Tobias  Fisrh  (ammodytes  tobianus)  is  smooth, 
silvery,  brownish  above,  about  a  span  in  length,  and 


FISHES.  47 

found  in  the  lakes  of  Europe.  It  buries  itself  in  the 
sand  to  search  after  worms.  Its  flesh  is  bad.  A  popu- 
lar belief  is,  that  it  is  the  fish  whose  gall  was  used  to 
restore  the  sight  of  blind  Tobias. 


FIFTH    ORDER. 
LOPHOBRANCHII.— NEEDLE  FISH. 

Are  small,  almost  fleshless,  and  remarkable  for  the  mail- 
like  plates  which  cover  their  bodies.  The  principal 
genera  belonging  to  this  order  are,  first 

The  Hippocampus  or  Sea  Horse  (syngnathus  hippo- 
campus), plate  20,  fig.  2,  which  never  exceeds  ten  inches 
in  length,  is  covered  with  rugged  lamellae,  dark  green, 
spotted  with  brown  and  black ;  after  death  the  color  is 
altogether  brown.  The  head  and  tail  are  curved  so  as  to 
resemble  that  of  a  horse  in  miniature.  It  is  found  in 
every  sea ;  and  on  account  of  its  singular  conformation, 
is  preserved  in  cabinets  and  museums.  The  flesh  is 
never  eaten. 

The  Sea  Dragon  (pegasus  draco),  plate  21,  fig.  1,  is, 
like  the  former,  covered  with  small  horny  plates.  The 
body  is  angular  and  large  ;  the  pectoral  fins  are  wing- 
shaped  ;  the  color  bluish,  and  the  knobbed  lamellae 
brown.  The  length  of  the  body  is  four  inches,  and  it  is 
a  native  of  the  Indian  seas. 


48  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

SIXTH    ORDER. 
PLECTOGNATHI   OR   BULLET   FISH. 

This  order  is  distinguished  by  the  globular  form  of 
their  bodies,  and  is  divided  into  two  families,  one  of  which 
is  easily  recognized  by  being  clothed  in  a  kind  of  mail ; 
the  other  is  smooth-skinned. 

The  Moon  Fish  or  Cephalus  (orthragiscus  mola)  has 
a  tail  so  short  and  so  high  vertically  that  it  looks  as  if 
the  head  was  cut  off.  It  is  without  scales,  but  rough- 
skinned  ;  the  color  is  shepherd's  gray ;  has  no  fins,  and 
being  so  large  and  unshapely,  as  its  weight  is  often  a 
hundred  pounds,  it  resembles  a  floating  millstone  to  which 
it  has  been  compared.  Its  flesh  is  very  white,  but  in 
boiling  dissolves  like  lime,  and  has  an  unpleasant  taste. 
The  fat  is  used  as  train  oil. 

The  Porcupine  Fish  (diodon  hystrix)  is  cylindrical, 
about  one  foot  in  length,  and  covered  with  spines  or 
prickles,  and  if  excited,  has  the  faculty  of  swelling  itself 
up  like  a  balloon  by  swallowing  air,  and  when  the  skin 
is  thus  distended,  the  spines,  with  which  it  is  armed, 
become  everywhere  erect  and  bristle  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  body.  These  fishes  assume  this  appear- 
ance when  taken  by  hook  and  line,  and  understand  how 
to  use  these  weapons  of  Nature's  providing  as  means  of 
defense.  They  are  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Antilles. 

The  Petrodon  (petrodon  hispidus),  plate  20,  fig.  7,  is 
one  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  of  a  blue-gray  color,  with 
spots  of  lighter  shade,  has  four  stripes  of  brown  on  the 
sides,  and  four  transverse  bars  of  blue.  It  has  the 
power  of  inflating  itself  like  the  diadon,  and  wounding 


FISHES.  49 

with  its  prickles.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  balloon  fish. 
It  is  found  in  the  Nile  and  Red  Sea ;  being  rarely  met 
with,  it  is  treasured  as  a  great  curiositj. 

The  Trunk  Fishes  (ostracion  triqueter)  are  about  a 
span  long,  the  head  and  strangely-shaped  body  is  of  a 
brown-red  color,  and  covered  with  an  inflexible  coat  of 
mail,  composed  of  hard  hexagonal  scales  or  plates  ;  they 
live  on  crabs  and  shell  fish,  are  found  in  the  East  and 
West  Indies.  The  flesh  is  very  palatable,  and  brings  a 
high  price.  There  are  others  of  the  same  family,  which 
are  said  to  be  poisonous. 


SEVENTH    ORDER. 

CHONDROPTERYGII.— CARTILAGINOUS   FISHES. 
BRANCHIS  LIBERIS  OR  STURIONES. 

The  fishes  of  this  family  have,  instead  of  bones,  only 
cartilages,  but  they  resemble  other  tribes  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  gills,  which  are  furnished  with  an  operculum, 
but  the  posterior  portion  of  the  branchial  are  free. 

The  Sturgeon  (accipenser  sturio)  is  from  six  to  eigh- 
teen feet  long,  of  a  blue-gray  color,  and  has  upon  its 
rough  skin  five  rows  of  bony,  spiny  plates  ;  under  its 
pointed  muzzle  are  a  few  cirri.  It  is  found  everywhere 
in  Europe,  and,  living  only  in  large  waters,  ascends  to  a 
great  distance  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Caspian  Sea. 
In  the  seas  it  feeds  on  herring,  mackerel,  and  shell  fish, 
in  the  rivers  on  carp.  It  is  a  lazy  fish,  lying  so  still  and 
passive  in  the  net  that  the  fisherman  passes  a  cord  through 
the  gill  openings  and  mouth  without  any  trouble.  Some- 


50  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

times,  however,  it  is  roused  to  resistance,  and  inflicts 
severe  and  dangerous  strokes  with  its  tail.  In  autumn 
the  sturgeons  repair  to  certain  places  in  the  rivers,  where 
they  lie  packed  in  rows,  ready  for  their  winter's  rest.  The 
Cossacks  take  advantage  of  their  half-dormant  state,  and 
cutting  holes  in  the  ice,  drag  the  frightened  creatures 
from  their  lair  with  long  grappling  irons  or  hooks.  The 
flesh  of  the  sturgeon  is  much  esteemed ;  it  is  cured  with 
salt  and  sent  abroad.  The  roe  and  swimming-bladder, 
furnishing  the  commercial  articles  of  Caviar  and  Ichthy- 
ocolla,  are  in  great  request.  The  roe,  prepared  in  a  par- 
ticular manner,  salted  and  packed  in  casks,  is  known 
over  Europe  as  a  highly-relished  viand  by  the  name  of 
Caviar  ;  an  inferior  sort  is  pressed  into  cakes  and  dried 
in  the  sun.  The  sturgeon  is  highly  useful  to  man,  for 
not  only  are  the  well-tasted  flesh  and  roe  considerable 
articles  of  trade,  but  also  the  isinglass  made  from  the 
swimming-bladder  is  useful  for  many  purposes.  It  is 
prepared  by  cutting,  washing,  and  drying  the  bladder, 
then  rolled  together  in  the  form  of  Q ,  is  ready  for  expor- 
tation. Much  resembling  the  sturgeon,  is 

The  Huso  or  Isinglass  Fish  (accipenser  huso),  over 
two  fathoms  long,  often  weighing  ten  quintals  ;  is  black 
above,  brownish  on  the  sides  ;  the  flesh  and  roe  are  very 
inferior  as  articles  of  food ;  the  swimming-bladder,  like 
that  of  the  sturgeon,  furnishes  the  valuable  commodity 
called  isinglass ;  also  when  boiled  with  sugar-candy,  it  is 
used  as  mouth  glue.  The  smallest  species  of  this 
species,  is 

The  Sterlet  (accipenser  ruthenus),  plate  20,  fig.  3, 
which  seldom  exceeds  two  feet  in  length  ;  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  body  is  black,  the  under  white,  spotted  with 


FISHES.  51 

rose  color;  frequents  the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  flesh  and 
and  caviare  are  preferred  before  the  others. 

The  last  of  this  order,  called 

The  Ape  Fish  (chimsera  monstrosa)  is  the  most  singu- 
lar-looking of  all  the  fish  tribes.  The  muzzle  is  obtuse 
and  inclined  upwards ;  the  upper  lip  is  cleft  in  the  man- 
ner of  what  is  termed  a  harelip,  and  has  a  number  of 
folds  and  borders.  The  eyes  resemble  those  of  a  cat  ; 
the  tail  is  long  and  very  thin,  and  directly  in  front  of  the 
first  dorsal  limb  is  a  kind  of  saw-like  fin,  composed  of 
sharp  spines.  Its  length  is  about  four  feet.  The  flesh 
is  bad. 


EIGHTH    ORDEK. 

CARTILAGINOUS  FISHES   WITH  FIXED 
BRAXCHLE. 

This  order  (Chondropterigii)  instead  of  free  branchiae, 
protected  by  a  single  covering,  have  them  adherent  to 
the  integuments,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  neck  are  many- 
openings,  which  lead  to  the  gill  arches.  To  these  belong 

THE  SHARKS  (Squalides}, 

Which  are  among  the  largest ;  their  mouths  are  planted 
all  over  with  teeth ;  these,  formidable  from  their  num- 
bers, are  also,  for  the  most  part,  lancet-shaped  and  in- 
dented. Mouth  and  nostrils  are  directly  below  the 
pointed  muzzle ;  the  skin  is  either  entirely  smooth  or 
studded  with  a  multitude  of  small,  stony  tubercles,  and 


52  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

when  prepared,  is  known  as  shagreen.  Some  of  them 
are  ovo- viviparous,  and  bring  their  young  living  to  the 
world ;  others  lay  eggs,  covered  with  a  coriaceous  or 
leather-like  skin.  These  eggs  are  oblong,  angular,  and 
have  a  membraneous  integument  on  the  corners  as  though 
wound  round  with  threads.  The  young,  however,  are 
mostly  developed  before  the  eggs  are  laid. 

The  Giant  Shark  (squalus  carcharias),  plate  20,  fig. 
6,  is  the  largest  and  most  formidable  of  the  tribe ;  about 
four  fathoms  long;  has  four  hundred  teeth,  which  are 
notched  on  the  edges ;  these  terrible  instruments,  placed 
loosely  in  the  mouth,  the  animal  has  the  power  of  erect- 
ing or  depressing  at  pleasure.  The  shark  harbors  mostly 
in  the  southern  seas,  and  swallows  everything  that  comes 
in  his  way ;  is  often  seen  to  follow  after  ships,  and,  being 
very  gluttonous,  seizes  upon  all  articles  thrown  over- 
board, and,  as  it  swallows  whatever  comes  in  its  way 
whole,  is  easily  taken  by  a  bait.  The  manner  of  catch- 
ing this  huge  fish  is  by  means  of  a  great  hook  enveloped 
in  a  piece  of  beef,  pork,  or  putrid  meat  of  any  kind ; 
this,  fastened  to  an  iron  chain,  is  dropped  into  the  sea, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  where  a  shark  has  been  seen ;  an 
iron  chain  is  chosen  instead  of  a  rope,  as  the  fish  would 
quickly  bite  the  latter  in  two.  The  voracious  animal  ap- 
proaches the  bait,  surveys  it  at  first  cautiously,  but  at  last 
darts  at  it  and  swallows  hook  and  all ;  but  when  he  finds 
the  hook  lodged  in  his  maw,  he  seems  to  turn  his  stomach 
inside  out,  and  to  disgorge  it.  After  a  fearful  battle, 
during  which  the  enraged  animal  lashes  the  water  into 
foam  in  his  fruitless  efforts  to  escape,  the  sailors  mean- 
while piercing  him  with  spears  and  grapnels,  he  becomes 
exhausted,  and  suffers  himself  to  be  drawn  on  shipboard, 
where  he  is  soon  dispatched.  The  flesh  is  not  good ;  the 


FISHES.  53 

fins,  however,  are  eaten ;  train  oil  is  made  from  the  liver, 
and  the  skin,  converted  into  shagreen,  is  used  to  cover 
instrument  cases. 

In  the  last  century,  it  is  said  that  a  sailor  exhibited 
as  a  show,  a  stuffed  shark,  by  which  he  had  been  swal- 
lowed whole,  without  being  wounded  by  the  teeth,  and 
Avas  disgorged  on  a  cannon  being  fired.  The  fish,  of 
which  the  well-known  story  of  having  swallowed  the 
prophet  Jonah  is  told,  was  most  probably  the  giant  or 
White  Shark.  When  this  terrible  creature  is  about 
to  swallow  his  prey,  he  is,  on  account  of  his  project- 
ing muzzle,  obliged  to  turn  on  his  back,  and  as  some 
time  is  required  to  perform  this  operation,  it  is  possi- 
ble for  a  bold  swimmer  not  only  to  escape,  but  to 
engage  in  battle  with  him.  There  is  a  story  told  of  a 
sailor  who  in  this  manner  revenged  the  death  of  his 
brother.  The  young  man,  in  bathing,  ventured  too  far 
from  the  ship,  and  was  swallowed  by  a  shark;  the 
brother,  aware  of  his  fate,  at  once  armed  himself  with  a 
short  sword,  and  boldly  threw  himself  into  the  sea, 
where  the  shark,  soon  discovering  the  new  prey,  swam 
swiftly  towards  him.  The  sailor,  no  less  resolute  than 
active,  calmly  awaited  the  arrival  of  the  monster,  which, 
turning  on  his  back,  made  ready  to  swallow  him.  At 
this  critical  moment  the  young  man  dived  quickly  below 
the  shark,  and  gave  him  a  deep  wound  with  his  sword. 
The  enraged  enemy  now  turned,  opened  his  huge  mouth, 
and  tried  to  conquer  his  antagonist,  either  by  swallowing 
or  killing  him  by  a  stroke  from  his  tail.  But  the  sailor 
dexterously  avoided  both,  and  succeeded  at  length  in  kill- 
ing his  formidable  antagonist  with  repeated  wounds  of 
his  sword. 

The  Saw  Fish  (squalus  pristis)  has  on  its  snout  a 


54  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

long  smooth  sword,  armed  on  each  side  "with  strong  bony 
spines  resembling  teeth.  This  beak,  from  which  they 
derive  their  name,  is  not  unlike  a  carpenter's  saw,  and 
proves  a  powerful  weapon  in  the  frequent  battles  it 
maintains  with  dolphins  and  whales  ;  these  contests  are 
fearfully  violent,  and  obstinately  continued  until  death 
decides  the  victory.  The  saw  fish  is  mostly  conqueror, 
as  he  thrusts  his  formidable  saw  into  the  vitals  of  his 
victim.  The  whale  fishermen  watch  these  battlings  with 
much  interest,  and,  when  ended,  pursue  the  saw  fish, 
which  not  seldom  breaks  his  saw.  This  fish  is  about 
fifteen  feet  in  length,  dark  gray,  and  smooth.  Their 
true  teeth  are  small,  and  look  like  a  pavement  made  of 
pebbles,  therefore  it  is  probable  that  they  live  principally 
on  crabs  and  shell  fish. 

The  Balance  Fish  (squalus  zygsena),  plate  20,  fig.  8, 
has  a  body  and  fins  resembling  those  of  the  shark,  from 
which  it  is  sometimes  called  the  Hammer-headed  shark, 
from  the  peculiar  form  of  its  head,  which  has  a  singular 
prolongation  on  each  side,  resembling  a  hammer,  on 
which  the  eyes  are  placed ;  the  teeth  are  sharp  and  tri- 
angular. Its  length  is  often  that  of  a  man,  sometimes 
greater ;  is  rough,  gray,  and  lives  mostly  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, preferring  muddy  spots.  It  is  viviparous, 
producing  about  a  dozen  living  young ;  very  rapacious, 
and  the  flesh  not  particularly  good.  A  scarcely  less 
numerous  race  is  that  of 

THE  RAYS, 

Recognized  by  their  flattened  bodies  and  long  slender 
tails.  The  mouth  lies  under  the  long  muzzle,  the  small 
eyes  above,  on  the  head;  and  behind  these  are  two  bran- 


FISHES.  55 

chial  openings.  The  eggs,  like  those  of  the  shark,  are 
angular,  brown,  and  leather-like:  the  long  point,  how- 
ever, is  wanting.  The  flesh  is  white,  tender,  and  much 
esteemed.  The  most  remarkable  is 

The  Torpedo  or  Electric  Ray  (raja  torpedo),  which 
has  a  smooth  round  body,  without  spines,  and  of  a  dark 
color,  with  a  few  spots,  like'  eyes ;  its  skin  is  very  slimy. 
The  rays  have  the  power  of  giving  electric  shocks,  like  the 
Gymnoti,  and  it  is  believed  they  use  this  faculty  to  be- 
numb and  thus  obtain  their  prey.  The  shock,  however, 
is  less  powerful  than  that  given  by  the  electric  eel. 
Tbey  seldom  exceed  a  foot  in  length ;  the  flesh  is  slimy, 
and  not  valued. 

The  Skate  (raja  batis)  generally  measures  two  feet ; 
the  body  is  rhomboid ;  gray,  spotted  with  black ;  rough, 
but  without  spines,  except  a  single  row  on  the  tail.  It 
is  found  in  every  sea,  but  principally  in  the  northern 
waters,  where  it  is  taken,  and  after  being  boiled  in  sea- 
water,  the  flesh  is  considered  by  the  inhabitants  of  those 
regions  as  very  palatable  food. 

The  Thornbaclt  (raja  pastinaca)  is  one  foot  long; 
olive  brown ;  smooth  and  viscid ;  in  the  middle  of  its 
slender  tail  is  a  sting,  three  inches  in  length,  doubly 
dentated,  with  which  it  can  inflict  very  dangerous 
wounds,  and  from  which  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
Sting  Ray.  The  American  Indians  use  -this  sting  as 
barbs  for  their  arrows ;  and  it  serves  the  fish  as  a  weapon 
of  defense,  or  in  taking  their  prey.  The  thornback  is 
found  in  every  sea,  and  was  known  to  the  ancients.  The 
sting  is  considered  poisonous  by  the  common  people,  and 
the  fishermen  cut  the  tail  oft"  immediately  on  taking  the 
fish,  lest  they  should  be  wounded. 

The  Giant  Ray  (raja  cornuta)  is  very  large,  and  the 


56  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

pectoral  fins  rise  up  like  two  immense  horns.  It  is 
found  in  the  southern  seas,  and  is  known  to  the  sailors 
as  the  Sea  Devil. 

THE  LAMPREYS 

Have  elongated  bodies,  like  worms ;  the  mouth  is  cir- 
cular, something  resembling  a  bowl,  and  armed  with 
several  ranges  of  small  teeth. 

The  River  Lamprey  or  Nine  Eyes  (petromyzon  flu- 
viatilis)  is  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's 
finger,  and  has  many  wrinkles  in  the  skin,  which  is  dark 
green  and  silvery.  Lampreys  are  found  in  all  the  muddy 
brooks  of  Europe,  but  are  particularly  abundant  in  Eng- 
land and  north  Germany,  where  they  are  taken  in  mil- 
lions. They  are  eaten  raw,  or  broiled ;  or,  preserved 
with  spices  and  vinegar,  are  sent  abroad  as  an  article  of 
commerce.  Those  taken  in  winter  are  so  superior  that 
no  one  will  fish  for  them  in  summer.  The  Courland 
lampreys  are  considered  the  best.  They  feed  on  worms, 
water  insects,  fish  roes,  and  decayed  flesh. 

The  Sea  Lampreys  (petromyzon  marinus),  plate  20, 
fig.  4,  are  more  than  two  feet  long,  and  as  thick  as  eels ; 
are  marbled  yellow  and  white.  These  fish  have  the  ex- 
traordinary power  of  attaching  themselves  so  closely  to 
solid  bodies  that  a  twelve  pound  stone  to  which  they  may 
be  suspended  by  suction,  can  be  raised  easily  with  them. 
They  are  found  in  all  the  seas,  but  more  abundantly  in 
the  eastern  and  northern.  They  ascend  the  rivers  in 
spring,  which  is  their  time  for  spawning ;  their  flesh  is 
then  very  good,  but  after  May  is  not  fit  to  eat.  They 
are  eaten  broiled,  as  eels,  but  are  also  marinated  and  sent 
abroad.  They  are  more  rare,  and  on  that  account  dear. 


FISHES.  57 

The  Hag  Fish  (myxine  glutinosa)  is  worm-like,  and 
•without  eyes ;  the  upper  margin  of  the  mouth  is  pierced 
by  a  spiracle  ;  it  measures  nine  inches  in  length,  is  thick 
as  a  finger;  bluish,  and  very  slimy.  The  myxine  is  found 
especially  in  the  Baltic,  in  the  loam  at  the  bottom,  doing 
great  injury  to  the  fishes  on  which  it  attaches  itself,  and 
piercing  a  hole  in  the  skin,  using  its  mouth  as  a  cupping- 
glass,  and  sucks  away  the  flesh,  leaving  nothing  but  skin 
and  bones.  Their  bodies  are  covered  with  a  white  viscid 
mucus,  which,  when  placed  in  a  vessel  of  water,  is 
thrown  off  in  an  incredible  quantity. 

The  Querder  (amniococtes  branchialis)  is  about  eight 
inches  in  length,  looks  like  a  large  maw  worm ;  is  fre- 
quently found  in  small  brooks  and  rivers  in  Europe  and 
elsewhere ;  is  fond  of  harboring  in  the  flax  which  is  placed 
in  the  water  to  be  cured ;  it  is  eatable,  but  on  account 
of  its  vermicular  appearance,  is  used  only  as  bait.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  Line  Eel. 

The  observant  reader,  who  has  followed  us  through 
the  graduated  scale  of  being  to  the  present  point,  will 
doubtless  have  remarked  how  wonderfully  the  links  of 
the  chain  of  animation  have  lessened  as  we  advanced  in 
our  description.  Man,  whom  we  began  with,  and  the 
most  wonderful  of  all  animal  structures,  stands  at  the 
head  of  all  mammals,  and,  independently  of  his  possess- 
ing an  immortal  soul,  is  the  most  complete  and  most 
wonderful  of  all  animal  structures.  By  his  external 
qualities  alone,  he  stands  at  the  head  of  the  great  class  of 
all  living  beings ;  and  it  may  have  been  observed,  as  we 
descended  the  scale  of  animation,  that  the  animals  become 
less  and  less  perfectly  organized ;  the  nervous  system, 
the  respiratory  and  circulatory  processes  grow  less  and 
less  perfect  as  we  proceed.  In  the  variety  and  progres- 


58  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

sion  which  reigns  throughout,  we  discover,  on  reaching 
the  reptiles,  that  their  heart  has  lost  one  ventricle,  and 
their  blood  is  cold ;  and  in  fishes  we  find  it  has  lost  an 
auricle,  and  consists  only  of  a  single  auricle,  and  a  single 
ventricle.  In  the  fishes,  also,  there  are  striking  changes 
in  the  composition  of  bone ;  the  skeleton  gradually  loses 
its  hardness,  until  we  come  to  the  Myxines,  where  it  is 
soft  and  membraneous,  or,  it  might  be  said,  "the  internal 
hard  frame  called  the  skeleton  has  disappeared,  and  we 
are  brought  step  by  step  to  the  consideration  of  soft  ani- 
mals without  vertebrae  ;  but,  nevertheless,  they  are  pro- 
vided with  organs  suitable  for  maintaining  the  kind  of 
life  with  which  they  are  endowed  by  the  Omniscient 
Creator  of  all  things."  This  concludes  our  account  of 
the  vertebrate  animals  which  constitute  the  First  Branch 
of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  We  will  now  consider  the 
Second  Branch,  composed  of  invertebrate  animals,  at 
the  head  of  which  stands  the  Mollusca. 


CLASS    V. 
CONCHOLOaY-MOLLUSCA. 


THIS  class  is  distinguished  from  the  other  higher 
classes  by  having  no  bony  skeleton  which  may  serve  as  a 
solid  foundation  for  supporting  the  soft  parts,  as  is  the 
case  in  all  the  classes  already  described.  Their  bodies 
are  soft  and  slimy,  hence  their  name ;  and,  for  the  pro- 
tective covering  of  what  else  would  be  so  defenseless, 
they  are  provided  with  a  chalk-like  shell,  that  serves  to 
guard  them  from  contact  with  the  external  world.  They 
have  cold,  white  blood;  many  breathe  through  organs 
resembling  gills,  and  in  a  few,  the  common  snail,  for 
instance,  respiration  is  carried  on  through  sack-like 
lungs.* 

In  most  other  living  creatures,  the  head,  trunk,  and 


*  The  lungs  of  reptiles  consist  of  a  number  of  bags  of  membraneous 
texture,  into  which  the  air  is  conveyed.  Most  of  the  mollusca  respire 
by  means  of  gills,  which,  although  they  differ  in  some  measure  from 
those  of  fishes,  are  formed  on  the  same  plan.  In  some  instances  they 
respire  air  by  itself,  but  in  general  by  the  medium  of  the  water  alone. 
In  some  animals  of  these  classes  the  gills  are  situated  upon  the  out- 
side of  their  bodies,  but  commonly  within.  Zoophytes  have  no  dis- 
tinct organs  for  respiration ;  yet  the  air  seems,  in  some  way  or  other, 
necessary  for  their  existence  also,  and  probably  penetrates  and  acts 
upon  their  blood  by  means  entirely  unknown.  These  animals  are  all 
cold-blooded. — XAT.  PHIL. — Tr. 


60  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

limbs  are  easily  recognized,  because  their  organization 
approaches  more  nearly  that  of  the  mammalia.  In  the 
most  of  the  mollusca  such  an  arrangement  of  organs  is 
not  apparent ;  and  it  requires  an  experienced  eye  to  dis- 
cover and  decide  -what  is  the  head,  trunk,  or  feet.  Their 
bodies  are  generally  covered  by  a  fold  or  reflection  of  the 
skin,  -which  envelopes  them  completely,  and  is  called 
their  mantle;  sometimes  this  covering  is  membranaceous, 
or  partly  fleshy,  but  in  most  cases  is  composed  of  a  stony 
matter  resembling  carbonate  of  lime.  This  envelope 
serves  to  protect  the  soft  parts  of  their  bodies,  and  in 
many  of  the  Crustacea  exhibits  most  beautiful  varieties 
of  form  and  color.  This  order  is  divided  into  two  class- 
es, partly  from  their  organs  of  motion,  and  partly  from 
the  form  and  structure  of  their  shells.  The  following 
table  will  give  an  idea  of  their  classification. 

FIRST  ORDER :  . .  CEPHALOPODA. — The  fec-t  or  teutacula  go  out  from 
the  head  ;  somewhat  resemble  arms,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  cups  or  suckers ;  the  Cuttlefish  be- 
longs to  this  order. 

SECOND  ORDER :  GASTEROPODA.  —  Includes  those  mollusca  that 
have  the  soft  portions  of  the  body  inclosed  in  a 
shell,  consisting  of  many  convolutions,  and  the 
feet,  or  instruments  of  motion,  are  placed  in  the 
form  of  a  fleshy  mass  under  the  belly.  The 
Snails  belong  to  this  order. 

THIRD  ORDER :  .  ACEPHALJ The  mollusca  belonging  to  this  class 

have  no  distiact  heads ;  neither  can  trunk  or 
limbs  be  distinguished  from  the  general  mass. 
This  order  includes  all  the  bivalves,  such  a?  oys- 
ters,  clams,  etc. 


MOLLU3CA.  61 

FIRST   ORDER. 
CEPHALOPODA. 

This  class  is  composed  of  mollusca  of  rather  fantastical 
shapes.  Their  round,  thick  bodies  being  enclosed  in  a 
kind  of  sack-like  mantle,  out  of  which  the  head,  fur- 
nished •with  two  large  eyes,  is  distinguishable.  The 
mouth,  which  much  resembles  the  beak  of  a  parrot,  is 
the  organ  by  which  they  take  and  hold  their  prey,  and 
around  this  opening  are  a  number  of  flexible  and  fleshy 
appendages,  like  arms,  of  which  two  are  mostly  longer 
than  the  rest.  On  these  arms  are  found  suckers  not 
unlike  cupping-glasses,  by  which  they  fasten  themselves 
on  their  prey  while  they  feed  upon  it.  When  the  head 
is  drawn  back,  the  creature  is  entirely  enveloped  in  the 
mantle,  the  tentacula  only  appearing.  They  have  also, 
under  this  mantle,  one  bone,  which,  externally,  is  very 
hard,  but  inside  is  perfectly  soft.  Many  of  this  class  are 
furnished  with  shells,  which,  however,  cover  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  body.  They  have  also  within  the  cavity 
of  the  abdomen,  a  kind  of  pouch  connecting  with  glands 
Avhich  secrete  an  ink-like  fluid ;  this  fluid,  the  animal 
has  the  power  of  ejecting  at  pleasure,  and  when  in  danger 
or  approaching  its  prey,  pours  it  out  so  abundantly  as  to 
discolor  the  water,  and  render  itself  invisible.  This  is  a 
maneuver  imitated  by  men  in  various  ways. 

The  Cuttle  Fish — Ink  Snail  (sepia  officinalis),  plate 
26,  fig.  3,  is  a  span  long ;  the  body  about  as  thick  as  an 
arm,  with  eight  small,  and  two  large  arms.  The  white 
fish  bone  (os  sepias)  used  in  the  arts  as  a  pounce  and  for 
polishing,  is  produced  by  this  animal,  which  is  found  in  all 


62  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  waters  of  Europe,  but  more  abundantly  in  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea.  It  is  eaten,  and  a  sauce,  considerably 
esteemed,  is  prepared  from  the  dark  juice.  By  means  of 
its  suckers  the  cuttle  fish  affixes  itself  strongly  on  fishes 
marked  out  for  prey,  but  it  is  not  dangerous  to  swimmers. 
There  are  many  relative  races;  many  are  of  immense 
size,  and  have  arms  twelve  feet  long ;  these  are  rather  to 
be  dreaded,  as  they  can  drag  a  man  under  water.  One 
of  the  handsomest  families  of  the  cephalopod  race  is 
that  of 

The  Argonaut  (argonauta  argo),  which  much  resem- 
bles the  cuttle  fish,  except  that  on  the  two  longest  arms 
is  a  membraneous  skin  resembling  a  sail ;  but  it  has  a 
still  more  distinguishing  mark  in  its  delicate  and  beau- 
tiful shell,  which,  white  and  thin  as  paper,  has  obtained 
for  it  the  name  of  the  Paper  Nautilus ;  but  the  great- 
est peculiarity  of  all  is  the  spreading  of  the  little  sail  on 
their  long  arms.  Men  insist  they  expand  it  to  catch  the 
flying  gale,  using  their  shell  as  a  boat,  and  their  long 
arms  as  oars.  It  is  probable  that  the  last  supposition  of 
the  nautilus  using  its  arms  for  rowing  is  true,  but  it  does 
not  employ  its  shell  as  a  boat,  as  the  latter  is  placed 
loosely  in  the  former,  and  without  adhesion,  is  sometimes 
unfit  for  sailing,  and  deserted  entirely. 

The  Nautilus  or  Sailqr  (nautilus  pompilius).  This 
cephalopoda  has  a  very  beautiful  mother-of-pearl-like 
shell,  which,  in  the  volutes  or  whorls,  resemble  those  of 
a  ram's  horn.  It  is  also  vulgarly  termed  Horn  of 
Amman,  because  the  shell,  like  those  of  the  Ammonites 
or  snails,  is  divided  into  many  chambers.  The  animal 
has  its  seat  in  the  exterior  one,  but  there  is  a  tube  issu- 
ing from  the  posterior  portion  of  the  animal's  body, 
which  traverses  all  the  other  chambers.  The  beautiful 


MOLLUSCA.  63 

shells  of  the  nautilus  were  used  in  early  times  as  drink- 
ing cups,  ornamented  with  various  devices,  and  found  in 
all  large  assemblies.  Little  is  known  concerning  the 
habits  of  the  nautilus. 

The  larger  species  of  the  cuttle  fish  race  in  early 
times  were  objects  of  dread  to  the  ancient  mariners,  and 
are  the  foundation  for  all  the  marvelous  stories  of  the 
Kraken,  which  is  represented  as  a  gigantic  mollusk, 
that  could  grasp  a  ship  in  its  long  arms,  and  drag  it  to 
the  bottom.  The  Ammonites  (snake-stones),  Bdcm- 
nites  (thunder-stones — nautilata),  now  only  found  in  a 
fossil  state,  belonged  also  to  the  class  of  cephalapoda. 


SECOND    ORD  ER. 
GASTEROPODA. 

Mollusca  of  this  class  crawl  by  means  of  a  fleshy  mass 
which  covers  the  lower  surface  of  the  abdomen  ;  the  back 
is  furnished  with  a  mantle,  which  can  be  more  or  less 
extended  or  compressed,  and  is  of  various  forms,  but 
mostly  assumes  that  of  a  spirally- twisted  shell.  The 
head  is  plainly  developed,  and  in  most  appears  to  be  very 
strong ;  the  mouth  is  surrounded  with  feelers,  which 
they  are  constantly  using ;  the  eyes  are  very  small,  and, 
in  some,  entirely  wanting.*  The  calcareous  envelope, 
which  is  formed  by  the  enclosing  mantle,  increases  in 
size  every  year,  and  more  or  less  resembles  a  spirally- 

*  Many  of  these  animals  are  entirely  naked ;  others  Lave  an  inter- 
nal shell  concealed  in  the  thickness  of  the  mantle ;  but  most  of  them 
have  an  external  shell, -which  is  almost  always  sufficient  to  contain 
them  entirely  and  afford  them  protection. — NAT.  PHIL. — Tr. 


64  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

twisted  cone,  whose  single  involution  rolls  or  winds 
around  a  small  column  in  the  interior.  Many  of  the 
same  have  an  opening  at  the  foot,  which  serves  to  close 
the  entrance  of  the  shell,  when  the  animal  retires'  into 
it.  This  is  the  case  with  the  aquatic  snails  (pulmonea 
aquatica).  Some  of  these  snails  breathe  the  air  through 
a  kind  of  lungs,  others  have  a  branchial  apparatus.  To 
the  pulmonea,  or  those  having  lungs,  belongs 

The  Common  Red  Slug  (limax  rufus),  which  is 
without  a  shell,  the  body  is  almost  cylindrical,  about  the 
size  of  a  man's  finger  in  length  and  thickness ;  the  color 
is  reddish-yellow  above,  gray  below.  They  are  espe- 
cially abundant  after  rain,  and  are  found  always  in  damp 
places,  such  as  raoats  and  ditches.  They  lay  from 
twenty  to  thirty  small  eggs;  these,  covered  with  a  parch- 
ment-like skin,  are  deposited  under  stones,  etc.  Some 
few  are  black.  They  are  supposed  to  show  the  state  of 
the  weather  in  the  following  manner  :  If  they  are  seen 
crawling  homewards  in  the  evening  with  mud  on  their 
tails,  bad  weather  may  be  expected  ;  but  if  they  carry  a 
green  leaf,  the  weather  will  be  fine.  They  feed  on  all 
kinds  of  plants  and  refuse  matter. 

The  Field  Snail  (limax  agrestis)  is  one  inch  long,  of 
a  foul  white  color,  very  slimy,  and  most  injurious  to 
agriculture.  Ducks  are  kept  by  many  on  account  of 
their  useful  services  in  ridding  the  fields  and  gardens  of 
these  slugs. 

The  Vineyard  Snail  (helix  pomatia)  has  a  body  re- 
sembling the  above  described,  which  is  enclosed  in  a  shell 
resembling  a  twisted  cone.  These  snails  are  found  every- 
where, in  meadows,  gardens,  or  about  hedges,  and  towards 
the  latter  part  of  summer  appear  in  great  numbers.  They 
can  be  fed  on  cabbage,  salad,  clover,  etc.,  so  as  to  be 


MOLLUSCA.  65 

made  very  fat ;  on  the  approach  of  winter  they  retreat 
entirely  within  their  shell,  the  mouth  of  which  they  close 
up  with  a  kind  of  calcareous  substance.  Thus  enclosed, 
and  safely  embedded  in  the  earth  or  in  hollow  trees,  they 
remain  torpid  until  spring.  Whilst  thus  voluntarily  im- 
prisoned, they  are  used  as  food,  and  being  boiled  in  salt 
water,  are  considered  as  being  both  savory  and  whole- 
some. They  deposit  their  eggs,  which  are  about  as  large 
as  peas,  during  the  summer  season,  in  cavities  of  the 
earth.  A  great  variety  of  snails,  larger  or  smaller, 
some  with  flat,  others  with  spiral,  or  oblong  shells,  are 
found  in  gardens.  They  are  so  numerous  as  to  be  con- 
sidered as  pests,  and  do  great  injury  to  vegetables,  with- 
out being  useful  in  any  possible  way. 

The  Midas  Ear  (bulla  haemastornus)  is  three  or  four 
inches  long  and  two  inches  in  thickness.  It  is  found  in 
the  forests  of  Brazil.  In  many  places  these  snails  are 
valued  on  account  of  their  shells,  Avhich  are  of  a  pale-red 
color  and  very  thick,  and  are  used  by  the  lime  burners. 
The  eggs  are  as  large  as  those  of  a  pigeon.  Another  of 
the  species,  very  large,  and  the  handsomest  specimen  of 
the  terrestrial  snail,  is 

The  Zebra  Snail  (bulla  zebra),  the  shell  of  which  is 
five  inches  long,  white,  with  brown  spiral  stripes,  and 
found  only  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

The  Common  Water  Snail  (helix  stagnalis)  abounds 
in  all  our  pools,  and  may  be  seen  swimming  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water.  The  length  is  about  one  inch  and  a 
half.  They  are  sometimes  kept  in  glass  jars,  and  fed  on 
duck  weed,  etc.  They  lay  their  eggs  on  water  plants, 
and  the  shell  or  covering  is  so  very  transparent,  that  the 
movements  of  the  young  snail  enclosed  within,  are 
clearly  discernible. 


'66  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


BRANCHIAL  SNAILS. 

First  of  this  class  is 

The  Turbo  (turbo  scalaris),  which  is  snow-white, 
about  two  inches  long,  with  shells  having  the  whorls  of 
the  spire  so  far  apart  that  they  touch  only  on  the  extreme 
edge  of  the  aperture ;  this  extremity  is  formed  by  the 
border  of  the  mantle,  and  completes  the  whole.  The 
spire  is  concave.  This  snail  is  a  native  of  Ceylon,  and 
one  hundred  years  ago  was  so  rare,  that  a  single  one 
would  sell  for  five  hundred  florins,  and  at  present  the 
usual  price  is  ten  florins.  It  is  sometimes  called  Wen- 
deltreppe  or  Winding  Stair. 

A  species  of  Turbo  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean, 
which,  although  resembling  the  genuine,  is  not  the  turbo 
preciosa  above  described;  the  Avhorls  of  the  spire  are 
closer  together,  which  forms  a  distinguishing  character- 
istic. 

The  Pagoda  (turbo  pagodus)  is  about  two  inches 
long,  the  same  in  breadth,  of  a  gray  color,  and  furnished 
with  projecting  ribs,  which  gives  it  a  resemblance  to  a 
Chinese  roof.  This  snail  can  not  live  under  water,  but 
hangs  on  rocks  against  which  water  dashes,  and  is  so 
tenacious  of  life,  that  it  can  live  a  year  without  food  or 
drink.  Its  only  aliment  is  supposed  to  be  the  slime  col- 
lected on  the  rocks  by  the  dashing  of  the  spray.  It  is 
found  by  all  the  streams  in  the  East  Indies  :  its  flesh  is 
bad. 

The  Giant's  Ear  or  Oil  Jar  (turbo  olearius)  is  two 
hands'  breadth  in  thickness,  is  rough  and  horny  on  the 
outside,  gray,  spotted  with  green  and  brown.  The  shell 
inside  is  like  mother  of  pearl ;  it  adheres  so  closely  to 


MOLLUSCA.  67 

the  steep  crags  where  it  lives  and  is  so  strong  that  it  can 
not  be  taken  from  its  shell. 

The  Wrinkled  Roundmouth  (turbo  rugosus),  plate 
25,  fig.  2,  is  about  two  inches  long,  rough,  and  traversed 
with  lines  of  green.  Found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea. 

The  Marbled  Cone  (conus  marmoreus)  has  a  conical 
shell,  the  spire  of  which  is  so  short  that  it  can  be  placed 
upright.  It  is  about  three  inches  long,  one  and  a  half 
in  circumference,  black,  with  numerous  triangular  white 
spots,  which  give  it  the  appearance  of  being  covered  with 
delicate  network.  Their  eggs  resemble  a  pile  of  coarse 
cords,  and  are  eaten  as  well  as  the  snail  itself.  It  is 
found  in  the  East  Indies,  where  they  use  the  shell  for 
ornamental  purposes,  such  as  making  rings,  etc.  Much 
resembling  the  above-described,  only  having  a  longer 
spire,  is 

The  Point 'ed  Cone  (conus  acuminatus),  plate  25,  fig.  8. 
The  shell  is  reddish-white,  waved  with  many  fine  lines  ; 
is  found  in  the  East  Indies,  but  is  very  rare.  There  are 
many  others  of  the  genus  conus,  which  are  remarkable 
for  the  brilliant  beauty  of  their  colors. 

The  Bishop's  Cap  (volvaria  episcopus)  is  about  five 
inches  in  length  and  one  in  thickness,  smooth,  white,  and 
marked  with  square  spots  of  a  red  color ;  it  is  found  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  inflicts  dangerous  wounds  with  its 
muzzle. 

The  Tiger  Porcelain  Snail  (cyprgea  tigris)  differs 
from  all  other  snails  in  having  the  shell  arched  above, 
and  a  notched  aperture  below.  Its  length  is  four  inches, 
circumference  three,  very  smooth  like  porcelain,  of  a 
bluish-white,  dotted  thickly  with  dark  broAvn ;  a  stripe 
of  light  brown  runs  across  the  back.  This  beautiful  mol- 


68  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

lusk  shines  or  glances  in  the  sea  like  glass,  and  is  valued 
more  or  less  as  the  blue  tint  predominates  ;  for  the  most 
part  it  Ties  buried  in  the  sand,  coming  forth  only  at  night 
at  the  times  of  the  new  or  full  moon,  -when  it  attaches 
itself  to  the  rocks.  They  are  killed  by  putting  them  in 
hot  -water,  and  then,  as  the  remains  of  the  creature  can 
not  be  removed  from  the  shell  -without  injury  to  the  lat- 
ter, it  is  laid  in  the  shade  near  to  an  ant  hill,  so  that  the 
busy  little  emmets,  which  will  be  sure  to  enter  it,  may 
feed  upon  the  carcass.  If  placed  in  fresh  water,  the 
colors  fade  while  the  decayed  mollusk  remains  within 
the  shell,  but  when  desired  in  great  brilliancy,  the  hue 
can  be  restored  by  laying  it  occasionally  in  salt  water 
and  drying  it  in  the  sun.  The  porcelain  snail  is  poison- 
ous. There  are  others  of  this  genus  which  are  distin- 
guished by  having  the  aperture  notched  on  one  side 
only.  The  most  remarkable  of  this  sub-family  is 

The  Hen's  Egg  (bulla  ovum),  three  inches  long,  two 
in  thickness,  smooth,  and  milk-white ;  the  snail  which 
occupies  this  shell  is  black  as  pitch  and  poisonous.  There 
are  several  races  of  the  Cyprea  Porcellana,  some  of  the 
smallest  of  which  are  used  by  the  uncivilized  East  In- 
dians as  coin  (cowries). 

The  Harps  (buccinum  harpa)  are  over  three  feet  in 
length,  two  in  breadth,  oval  above,  and  have  sharp  broad 
ribs,  which  project  and  somewhat  resemble  the  strings  of 
a  harp ;  the  color  is  white,  dappled  with  red.  and  glances 
Avith  a  beautiful  luster.  The  ribs  are  flesh  colored,  and 
marked  between  with  brown  and  white  squares,  somewhat 
like  panes  of  glass  in  church  windows.  The  flesh  of  the 
enclosed  snail  is  hard  and  gristle-like,  and  in  front  is  a 
fleshy  appendage,  which  can  not  be  drawn  into  the  shell. 
The  creature  has  the  power  of  detaching  itself  from  this 


MOLLUSCA.  69 

leaflet  or  mantle,  and  leaving  it  behind.  When  confined 
in  a  vessel  containing  water,  if  an  attempt  is  made  to 
take  it,  it  crawls  rapidly  round  and  fills  the  water  with 
slime,  but  the  moment  it  is  touched,  it  draws  back  into 
its  shell,  leaving  the  fleshy  appendage  already  mentioned 
to  float  or  sink  as  prize  to  the  captor.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  Indies,  and  considered  poisonous. 

The  Trumpeter  (murex  tritonis)  is  above  a  foot  in 
length,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm,  with  transverse  ele- 
vations in  form-  of  short  varices  or  ribs  on  the  shell, 
which  is  spotted  with  white,  red,  and  brown ;  at  the 
mouth  it  is  smooth  and  red.  The  snail  itself  is  wrinkled, 
and  looks  like  the  neck  of  a  frog.  Its  color  is  spotted 
red  and  brown.  The  flesh  is  eaten.  If  the  mouth  of 
the  shell  is  placed  to  the  ear,  a  kind  of  rushing  sound  is 
heard ;  this  noise,  supposed  to  resemble  the  murmur  of 
the  sea,  is  observable  in  many  of  the  Conchifera,  but 
more  particularly  in  the  murices.  The  shells  of  this 
species  are  used  as  trumpets  by  the  natives  of  Tartary 
and  the  East  Indies ;  a  small  piece  being  removed  from 
below,  fits  them  for  sending  forth  tones  which  may  be 
heard  at  a  great  distance.  In  order  to  retain  their  luster 
it  is  necessary  to  place  them  in  salt  water,  every  two 
years. 

The  Pelicans  Foot  (rostellaria  pespelecani),  plate  25, 
fig.  5,  instead  of  a  regular  spiral  shell  has  strong  projec- 
tions issuing  from  the  sides.  Its  length  is  two  inches, 
its  breadth  about  the  same,  and  of  a  brownish-gray  color. 
This  tribe  of  mollusca  are  frequently  found  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, where  they  are  easily  taken  in  the  time  of 
storms,  as  they  then  creep  out  of  the  mud.  The  flesh  is 
eaten,  and  considered  good.  > 

The  Sea  Ear  (haliotis  canaliculata).  plate  25,  fig.  3, 


70  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

is  rather  oval,  turbinated  only  on  the  posterior  portion, 
and  furnished  on  the  outside  with  projecting  folds  (plicae) 
and  warts  or  knobs.  Along  the  columella  or  right  hand 
border  is  a  series  of  holes,  through  which  the  water 
reaches.  Its  length  is  above  three  inches,  its  breadth 
two,  internally  covered  by  a  layer  of  mother-of-pearl, 
and  on  the  outside  is  of  a  grayish-green  color  striped 
with  red.  It  is  found  on  almost  every  sea  coast,  where 
it  clings  to  the  rocks,  adhering  to  them  closely.  It  is 
eatable. 

The  Knee  Pan  (patella  vulgata).  All  the  patella 
have  a  broad-based,  pan-like  shell,  without  a  vertebral 
spine,  that  covers  the  whole  body  of  the  broad,  fleshy 
animal  within,  are  found  on  every  sea  coast,  and  adhere 
so  closely  to  the  rocks,  that  it  is  necessary  to  detach 
them  with  a  knife.  The  most  common  is  pearl-like  in- 
side, two  inches  long  and  two  high  ;  the  shell  is  whitish- 
gray  on  the  outside,  surrounded  by  four  rows  of  leaflets 
or  fringes,  which  are  russet-colored.  This  species,  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties,  are  used  as  food. 

The  Sea  Hares  (aplysia  depilans)  have,  instead  of  a 
shell,  a  horny  plate  or  fold  which  is  covered  by  the 
mantle,  was. well  known  to  the  ancients,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  sea  hare.  It  has  an  unpleasant  odor,  and  is 
supposed  to  possess  poisonous  qualities.  Its  form  is 
singular,  being  drawn  up  together,  so  that  it  somewhat 
resembles  a  young  -hare.  Its  color  is  a  dirty  brown ; 
length  from  six  to  eight  inches,  thickness  three.  The 
body  is  ornamented  with  spots  of  a  beautiful  purple 
color  ;  if  pressed  or  crushed,  a  reddish-colored  liquid  is 
poured  out,  which  is  of  so  acrid  a  nature  that  the  hand 
which  it  touches,  will  swell  immediately,  and  if,  by  any 
means,  a  drop  of  this  fluid  is  brought  in  contact  with  the 


MOLLUSCA.  71 

beard  or  Lead,  the  hair  will  fall  off.  These  mollusks 
crawl  about  on  the  rocks  like  snails.  The  odor,  how- 
ever, is  intolerable,  whether  the  creature  is  brought  into 
the  house  or  thrown  upon  the  strand. 


THIRD    ORDER. 

BIVALVES  'OR    THE   TRUE    MUSCLES. 

This  class  of  mollusca  are  inclosed  in  hard  calcareous 
shells,  have  no  distinguishable  head  ;  a  few  of  them  ad- 
here closely  to  the  rocks,  without  ability  to  move  from 
the  spot ;  others  have  a  pedicle  or  foot,  which  is  a  fleshy 
mass,  somewhat  resembling  the  tongue  of  a  mammal,  and 
can  be  protruded  oiitside  of  the  shell,  and  serves  for 
motion  along  the  bottom  of  the  water;  the  progress, 
however,  of  all  this  class  is  slow.  When  waiting  for 
food,  the  bivalves  open  their  shells  slightly,  but  no  sooner 
does  a  worm  or  other  eatable  article  come  within  reach, 
than  the  shell  is  again  tightly  closed.  On  the  approach 
of  an  enemy  the  same  sudden  shutting  up  of  the  defend- 
ing shell  is  observed ;  and  when  taken  from  their  native 
waters,  they  keep  so  tightly  closed  up,  that  not  a  drop 
of  the  liquor  usually  found  inside  can  escape.  A  few  of 
them  spin,  it  is  imagined,  with  their  foot  a  bundle  of 
silk-like  filaments,  by  means  of  which,  like  anchor- 
cables,  they  affix  themselves  to  submarine  bodies.  Those 
which  sit  fast  on  the  rocks  have  no  foot.  The  first  of 
this  order, 

The  Common  Oyster  (ostrea  edulis),  is  somewhat 
elliptical,  about  as  broad  as  a  hand,  and  consists  of  a 


72  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

number  of  leaflets  or  plates  of  a  grayish-white  color  and 
folded  over  each  other.  The  inside  of  the  shell  has  a 
slightly  iridescent  luster,  resembling  mother-of-pearl. 
Oysters  are  found  all  over  Europe,  and  in  Holland  are 
peculiarly  fostered.  The  manner  of  raising  them  is  as 
follows  :  As  the  young  come  forth  from  the  spawn  from 
June  to  the  end  of  August,  the  oysters  are  placed  in 
ingeniously-arranged  pools,  into  which  the  sea  water  can 
be  admitted  at  pleasure;  here  they  remain  until  the 
young  are  of  a  considerable  size ;  they  are  then  removed 
from  the  pools  and  deposited  in  suitable  places  along  the 
coast,  which  are  termed  oyster-beds,  and  thus,  gaining 
time  to  grow,  in  the  course  of  four  or  five  years  attain 
full  size.  They  are  very  small  at  first,  being  scarcely 
the  hundredth  part  of  an  inch.  They  live,  it  would 
seem,  for  no  other  purpose  but  to  subsist  on  such  food  as 
they  require,  and  have  no  means  of  defense  in  time  of 
danger  except  to  close  their  shell.  To  secure  the  first, 
they  must  wait  with  the  valves  unclosed  until  the  desired 
object  approaches  ;  but  it  appears  that  they  can  readily 
distinguish  between  their  legitimate  prey  and  an  enemy, 
for  if  it  is  the  latter,  the  shell  is  immediately  shut  up. 
Three  mice  were  once  running  about  on  the  strand,  where 
some  large  oysters  were  lying,  and,  attracted  by  the 
prospect  of  a  good  meal,  one  approached  and  thrust  its 
nose  within  the  open  shell,  which  the  oyster  immediately 
closed,  and  did  not  open  again  until  the  mouse  was  dead. 
The  sea  crabs  are  more  cunning  ;  seeing  that  the  oyster 
closes  its  shell  too  quickly  for  him  to  effect  an  entrance,- 
the  wily  enemy  takes  a  small  stone  within  his  claws  and 
thrusts  it  between  the  valves  of  the  shell ;  thus  keeping 
it  open,  he  invades  the  premises  fearlessly  and  feeds  upon 


MOLLUSCA.  73 

the  occupant.  Oysters  are  considered  good  and  whole- 
some food,  but,  by  most,  are  preferred  to  be  eaten  raw. 

The  Cock's  Comb  (ostrea  cristi  galli)  is  almost  tri- 
angular, and  has  strong  folds  on  the  border  of  the  shell, 
which  fit  into  each  other ;  it  is  very  rare,  and  found  only 
in  the  East  Indies. 

The  Neptune's  Box  (pecten  gibbus),  plate  25,  fig.  4, 
is  one  of  the  handsomest  of  the  acephala ;  differs  from 
the  other  oysters  in  having  the  lower  shell  less  concave 
than  the  upper,  and  also  by  the  ribs  radiating  towards 
the  margin,  like  the  sticks  of  a  fan.  Its  size  is  four 
inches,  cinnamon  colored,  with  white  and  bluish  spots; 
this  family,  with  other  relative  races,  can  swim,  but 
in  a  most  singular  manner.  They  open  and  shut  the 
valves  incessantly,  and  thus  give  a  kind  of  stroke  to 
the  water,  which  propels  them  upward  and  downward, 
but  at  each  move  furthering  their  course.  The  Nep- 
tune's box  {scallop)  is  found  in  the  West  Indies.  Much 
resembling  it  is  the  large  Pecten  Jacobea  (St.  James' 
cap),  about  the  size  of  a  man's  hand,  and  somewhat 
resembles  a  mantle ;  in  the  early  times  it  was  usually 
worn  as  an  ornament  by  the  pilgrims  who  wandered  to 
the  shrine  of  St.  James  di  Compostella,  from  whence 
it  has  its  name.  All  the  pectense  are  eatable. 

The  Pearl  Oyster  (mytilus  margaritiferus).  The 
shell  is  about  as  large  as  a  hand,  tolerably  round,  of  a 
blackish  color  outside,  and  pearl-like  or  nacreous  within. 
The  flesh  tastes  like  that  of  other  oysters,  and  is  com- 
monly eaten.  The  pearl  oyster  is  found  principally  in 
the  Persian  Gulf,  the  seas  surrounding  Ceylon  and 
Japan,  and  on  the  coast  of  Morocco.  The  pearl  is  sup- 
posed to  be  formed  by  a  grain  of  sand,  which,  having 
accidentally  found  an  entrance  into  the  shell,  has  become 
4 


•  4  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

changed  into  a  pearl  by  the  same  operation  of  the  se- 
creted fluid  which  acts  upon  the  shell,  rendering  it  nacre- 
ous and  beautiful.*  This  supposition  obtains  generally, 
as  pearls  are  by  no  means  found  in  every  oyster.  In 
twenty  oysters  brought  up  from  the  depths  of  the  sea, 
very  often  not  a  single  pearl  is  obtained,  whereas,  on  the 
other  hand,  sometimes  twenty  pearls  are  found  in  a  single 
one.  The  manner  of  fishing  for  pearl  oysters  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  divers,  who  are  very  expert,  go  out  in  boats 
at  the  break  of  day  to  the  spots  where  these  oysters 
abound;  these  boats  are  provided  with  stones  which 
weigh  from  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds,  and  serve  for 
anchors.  To  accelerate  his  descent,  each  diver  seizes 
one  of  these  diving-stones  with  his  toes,  at  the  same  time 
holding  to  the  rope  to  which  it  is  fastened,  and  which  has 
assisted  him  to  go  down ;  this  he  keeps  in  his  left  hand. 
No  sooner  has  he  reached  the  bottom,  than  he  frees  him- 
self from  the  stone,  collects  the  oysters  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible, fills  a  net  which  hangs  from  his  neck  with  them, 
and  gives  a  signal  to  be  drawn  up,  as  soon  as  he  finds  it 
necessary  to  take  a  new  inspiration.  His  mouth  and 
nose  are  protected  by  a  sponge  filled  with  oil,  but  it 
often  happens  that  on  coming  to  the  surface  blood  issues 
from  the  mouth,  nose,  and  ears,  occasioned  by  the  press- 
ure of  air  upon  their  lungs  in  going  down  to  the  bottom. 
The  oysters  are  put  into  pens,  and  there  left  until  the 
animal  matter  decays,  when  the  loathsome  and  unhealthy 
business  of  washing  the  pure  pearls  from  the  putrid  mass 
commences.  They  are  then  assorted  through  various 

*  All  shells  that  are  nacreous  internally  may  produce  pearls ;  and 
it  is  said  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  them  in  a  sort  of  large  mus- 
cle (unio)  -which  inhabits  the  great  rivers  of  Europe  and  the  United 

States.— TV. 


MOLLUSCA.  75 

sized  sieves  made  of  brass.  The  largest  and  handsomest, 
called  round  pearls,  are  the  most  valuable,  and  sold  ac- 
cording to  their  weight,  a  single  one,  weighing  but  a 
grain,  is  sold  for  a  rix  dollar  (four  shillings  and  sixpence 
sterling).*  The  price  varies  according  to  their  size ;  ten 
thousand  rix  dollars  are  sometimes  demanded  for  the 
largest. 

There  is  some  labor  expended  on  them  before  they  are 
ready  for  sale ;  many  washings  are  necessary  to  purify 
them,  and  after  being  thoroughly  cleansed  they  are  pol- 
ished with  salt  and  tripoli,  or  sulphate  of  potash.  The 
divers  are  subject  not  only  to  the  dangers  of  the  deep,  to 
tempests,  to  suffocation  at  the  bottom,  to  being  devoured 
by  sharks,  but  also  to  severe  disease  arising  from  their 
unhealthy  employment  of  assorting  the  pearls  from  the 
putrid  oyster,  and  few  survive  more  than  five  or  six 
years. 

This  class  of  mollusca  furnishes  not  only  pearls  as 
worn  for  ornaments,  but  also  mother-of-pearl  formed 
from  the  beautiful  nacreous  lining  of  the  shell,  and  the 
iridescent  substance  found  at  the  clasp  which  is  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Peacock  Stone. 

The  PinncB  (pinna  nobilis)  are  a  span  long;  have 
valves  in  the  form  of  a  half-open  fan ;  about  a  hand- 
breadth  across ;  brown  outside,  but  pearl-like  within. 
They  have  a  foot  with  which  they  are  supposed  to  spin  the 
filaments  by  which  they  anchor;  these  threads,  termed 
byssus,  or  by  some  beards,  are  often  a  foot  in  length ; 
are  strong  and  brilliant,  partly  of  a  gold  color,  and  partly 
brown.  The  animal  thrusts  the  sharp  end  of  its  shell  into 


*  The  revenue  of  the  pearl-fishery  of  Ceylon  amounts  annually  to 
$80,000.— RUSCHEN  YOT.— Tr. 


76  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  sand,  and  fastens  itself  by  the  byssus  to  the  surround- 
ing stones.  Fine  gloves  and  stockings  are  made  from 
these  silk-like  threads,  and  in  the  south  of  Italy  and 
Sicily,  they  are  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  precious 
stuffs ;  they  sometimes  contain  pearls.  It  is  a  popular 
belief  that  the  pinna  lives  in  close  intimacy  with  a  small 
crab,  which  warns  it  on  the  approach  of  its  most  formid- 
able enemy,  namely,  the  cuttle  fish. 

The  Moss  Muscle  (mytilus  edulis)  is  smooth,  violet- 
colored  ;  nearly  wedge-shaped ;  more  than  two  inches 
long,  and  one  and  a  half  broad ;  is  found  in  every  sea, 
mostly  on  sand  banks,  not  far  from  the  shore.  The  foot 
is  slender,  cylindrical,  protruding  like  a  tongue,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  silky  byssus,  which,  spun  by  the  animal, 
enables  it  to  fasten  itself  on  other  muscles.  When  the 
mytilus  is  about  to  station  itself  anywhere,  it  opens  its 
shell,  protrudes  its  foot,  and  feels  around  for  a  suitable 
spot;  this  being  selected,  is  covered  with  an  adhesive 
fluid  secreted  by  the  animal ;  the  foot  is  again  drawn 
back,  and  a  thread  spun,  and  this  process  is  repeated 
until  a  sufficient  number  is  produced  to  serve  as  steady 
anchor  cords.  They  are  said  to  possess  a  flavor  superior 
to  that  of  the  oyster,  but  sometimes  occasion  a  kind  of 
poisoning ;  they  are  better  to  be  eaten  cooked  than  raw. 

The  Lithodomus  (mytilus  lythophagus)  is  cylindrical, 
four  inches  long,  and  about  one  in  thickness ;  of  dark 
horn  color,  with  latticed  stripes.  This  muscle  is  found 
imbedded  in  chalk  cliffs  and  other  rocks,  which  it  bores 
into  a  number  of  cells,  resembling  those  of  a  honey-comb. 
How  this  is  accomplished  is  wonderful,  as  the  shell  of  the 
creature  is  softer  than  the  rock  it  perforates,  and  if  by 
means  of  an  acid,  as  some  suppose,  it  is  as  likely  to  ope- 
rate upon  the  shell  as  the  stone.  At  all  events  no  such 


MOLLUSCA.  77 

acid  is  found  within  the  valves,  for  this  species  of  mytila 
is  also  eaten  and  found  very  palatable.  The  lithodomus 
is  met  with  in  all  the  warmer  seas,  mostly  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

The  Chamacea,  of  which  the  principal  is  the  muscle 
known  as  the  Nail  Shell  (chama  gigas),*  are  white, 
oblong,  with  shells  usually  lamellar  and  rough,  and  the 
largest  of  the  tribe  ;  they  are  about  five  feet  in  length, 
and  so  heavy  that  it  requires  from  six  to  eight  men  to 
carry  one.  Seen  through  the  opening  of  the  valve,  the 
creature  appears  hideously  ugly ;  has  the  semblance  of  a 
snake  skin  full  of  black,  yellow,  and  white  veins.  It  is 
dangerous  to  approach  it  too  closely,  for  an  arm  or  leg 
may  be  the  price  of  such  temerity.  Divers  venture  suf- 
ficiently near  to  encircle  them  with  ropes,  and  in  this 
manner  only  can  they  be  drawn  to  the  surface ;  they  are 
considered  very  good  food,  and  as  one  is  sufficient  to  fur- 
nish a  meal  for  several  men,  the  trouble  of  taking  them 
is  repaid.  The  Orientals  make  bathing-tubs  and  basins 
for  small  springs  from  the  shells.  This  genus  belongs 
entirely  to  the  Indian  Ocean,  but  especially  to  the  coasts 
of  Macassar. 

The  Painter's  Shell  (mya  pictorum),  plate  25,  fig.  1, 
about  three  inches  long,  and  one  broad ;  of  an  oblong 
oval  form ;  brownish  below,  but  seemingly  rubbed  off 
above.  It  is  found  in  the  mud  of  all  rivers,  and,  as  if 
fearful  of  danger,  buries  itself  in  the  sand  with  great 
rapidity.  If  viewed  in  a  glass,  the  reception  of  the 
water  which  serves  for  the  nutriment  of  the  body,  and 
its  ejection  through  the  small  tubes,  may  be  distinctly 

*  Kno-rn  by  the  vulgar  name  of  The  Holy  Water  Pot.  The  shell 
itself  often  weighs  three  hundred  pounds. — Tr. 


78  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

seen,  and  how  it  is  effected  by  the  respiratory  process. 
The  Barnacle  or  Duck  Shell  resembles  the  above,  but 
is  larger,  and  has  a  more  fragile  shell,  which  is,  as  is 
•well  known,  used  by  painters. 

The  River  Pearl  Shell  (mya  margaritifera)  is  black 
on  the  outside ;  the  interior  of  the  shell  is  lined  with 
thick  laminae  of  beautiful  mother-of-pearl ;  its  length  is 
about  four  inches,  its  breadth  two;  pearls  are  found 
within  the  valves,  but  much  inferior  in  beauty  to  the 
Oriental.  They  are  found  in  the  Elbe,  the  Moldau, 
and  other  streams  in  Middle  Germany. 

The  Tellina,  Tunkenshell  (tellina  gari)  is  oval,  two 
inches  long  and  one  broad;  gray,  rayed  with  brown. 
The  flesh  is  white  and  soft,  and  the  liver  being  first  re- 
moved, pickled  with  vinegar  and  spices,  is  much  esteemed 
as  sauce.  It  is  met  with  in  all  the  southern  seas,  but 
principally  in  the  Mediterranean. 

The  Razor  Shells,  Knife  Handles  (solen  vagina),  so 
called  from  their  elongated  form  resembling  the  handle 
of  a  dessert  knife,  are  six  inches  long,  of  a  green  color, 
striped  with  red.  They  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  Europe, 
but  principally  on  those  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean, 
where  they  are  very  numerous. 

The  Stone  Finger  (pholas  dactylus)  is  over  three 
inches  in  length,  one  in  thickness,  and  is  striated  in  a 
kind  of  network.  The  shell  is  very  easily  broken,  never- 
theless, they  can  excavate  tubes  or  long  cells  in  the  hard- 
est wood  or  even  lava,  like  the  Mytilas.  The  flesh  is 
considered  superior  to  the  oyster  in  flavor  and  tender- 
ness. 

The  Ship  Worm  (teredo  navalis)  has  no  proper  shell, 
but  is  an  almost  vermiform  body,  about  half  a  foot  in 
length,  about  as  thick  as  a  grub  worm,  and  is  celebrated 


MOLLUSCA.  79 

for  the  ravages  it  commits  on  ships.  These  mollusca 
excavate,  in  submerged  wood,  holes  or  tubes,  which  it 
lines  with  a  calcareous  matter  so  hard  that  it  might 
readily  be  mistaken  for  a  second  shell.  Vessels  have 
been  sunk  by  the  holes  bored  through  their  bottoms,  by 
these  animals,'  and  the  only  way  to  guard  against  their 
depradations,  which  they  carry  on  constantly  and  to 
such  a  large  extent,  is  to  sheathe  the  submerged  portion 
of  the  ship  with  plates  of  copper.  These  mollusca  are 
eatable,  and  said  to  be  preferrable  to  the  common  oyster. 
The  Fire  Bodies  (pyrosoma  elegans),  plate  25,  fig.  6. 
This  very  remarkable  family  are  without  shells,  and. 
uniting  in  great  numbers,  form  a  large,  hollow  cylinder, 
which,  by  the  alternate  contraction  and  dilatation  of  the 
animals  that  compose  it,  swims  in  the  water  and  emits  a 
beautiful  iridescent  light,  seen  to  great  advantage  by 
nighfe.  When  several  of  these  pyrosomae  are  swimming 
together,  they  appear  like  an  immense  luminous  globe, 
arising  from  the  dark  bosom  of  the  ocean.  The  entire 
length  of  the  animal  is  seven  inches,  the  circumference 
one  only.  When  floating  quietly,  the  color  is  yellow, 
with  a  slight  mixture  of  green,  but  as  soon  as  it  contracts 
in  order  to  move,  a  fiery  glow,  resembling  the  hue  of 
red  hot  iron  is  emitted,  and  which  again  fades  into  the 
changeful  shades  exhibited  by  iron  as  it  cools. 


CLASS    VI. 
IN  S  E  C  T  A. -EN  TO  MO  LOGY. 


INSECTS  are  distinguished  by  having,  like  the  higher 
classes  of  animals,  a  visible  trunk  and  limbs,  which  de- 
termines the  general  form  of  the  body,  and  furnishes 
them  \vith  means  of  motion ;  it  is,  however,  neither  a 
skeleton,  like  that  possessed  by  the  superior  classes,  nor 
a  calcareous  shell,  such  as  distinguishes  the  mollusca, 
but  species  of  horn-like  case  or  armor,  inside  of  which 
the  muscles  of  motion  and  the  soft  parts  of  the  animal 
are  enclosed.  This  is  plainly  to  be  seen  on  the  most 
superficial  observation  of  the  structure  of  the  crab, 
where  the  whole  animal  is  enclosed  in  a  species  of  solid 
armor,  which  yet  leaves  the  limbs  separate  and  distin- 
guishable. This  mailed  covering  being  removed,  the 
interior  is  found  to  consist  of  muscles,  which  are  of  great 
power,  and  serve  for  the  purposes  of  progression  and 
motion.  The  most  of  insects  are  found  to  possess  the 
following  wonderful  internal  structure,  nevertheless  it 
varies  somewhat  in  the  different  classes  :  Those  which  do 
not  breathe  through  branchiee,  of  which  the  crabs  are 
the  only  type  among  the  articulata,  possess  a  number  of 
air  tubes,  or  trachea,  which  ramify  like  roots  in  the 
interior,  conveying  the  air  to  every  portion  of  the  sys- 


IXSECTA.  81 

tern,  and  makes  the  greater  part  of  the  body  appear  like 
a  lung.  These  tubes  communicate  externally  by  open- 
ings placed  on  each  side  of  the  body,  and  are  termed 
stigmata.  This  arrangement  of  the  organs  for  aerial 
respiration  is  plainly  discernible  in  the  structure  of  the 
naked  caterpillar,  -where  the  filamentous  canals  are  quite 
visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  may  be  counted.  If  the 
body  of  the  insect  is  covered  with  oil  or  varnish,  it  is  at 
once  suffocated ;  life  is  even  more  suddenly  extinct  than  in 
the  severance  of  the'  head  from  the  trunk  of  a  human 
being.  The  organs  of  nutrition  are  variously  fashioned, 
differing  according  to  the  nature  of  the  food  required  by 
the  different  races.  Some  possess  strong  antennae  or 
feelers  ;  others  have  their  mouths  armed  with  a  sort  of 
lancet-like  beak  or  piercer ;  and  another  class  are  pro- 
vided with  a  tubular  trunk  or  sucker.  The  tube  com- 
mences at  the  mouth  and  extends  along  the  whole  length 
of  the  body,  as  in  the  higher  races  of  animals.  The 
work  is  performed  very  rapidly,  therefore  many  of  them 
are  exceedingly  voracious.  The  body  is  divided  into 
three  parts,  namely,  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen,  which 
are  separated  into  three  distinct  segments,  but  bound 
together  by  a  strong  articulation  or  joint ;  in  the  Crus- 
tacea, *  however,  the  head  and  thorax  frequently  form  but 
one  piece.  The  genuine  insect  passes  through  gradual 
stages  of  development  before  it  attains  the  perfect  form 
it  is  destined  to  assume ;  these  are,  first,  larva,  then 
caterpillar,  nympha  or  chrysalis,  and,  lastly,  a  perfect 
insect ;  nevertheless,  the  Crustacea  form  an  exception  to 
this  manner  of  change,  although  they  are  subject  to  a 

*  This  great  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  is  composed  of  five  dis- 
tinct classes  of  animals;  namely,  insects,  myriapods,  arachnidans, 
crustaceans,  and  annelidans,  all  distinguishable  from  each  other. — TV. 

4* 


82  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

species  of  renewal  by  molting  or  casting  off  their  shells. 
The  senses  of  insects  are  very  acute,  namely,  those  of 
smelling,  hearing,  and  feeling ;  the  latter  especially  is 
well  developed,  as  may  easily  be  remarked  in  those  fam- 
ilies of  insects  which,  like  the  ants,  live  in  communities, 
and  seem,  by  their  exercise,  plainly  to  understand  each 
other.  If  an  insect  is  deprived  of.  its  antennae  or  feelers, 
it  loses  all  relationship  with  others  of  its  kind  ;  a  plain 
proof  that  the  sense  of  touch  is  the  communicating  bond 
between  the  individuals  of  the  race.  The  eyes  of  insects 
present,  in  their  wonderful  arrangement,  food  for  study. 
They  are  found  to  consist  of  a  compound  mass  of  hexa- 
gonal facets,  which  go  to  form  the  simple  eye,  giving  to 
it,  when  seen  through  a  magnifying  glass,  the  appearance 
of  the  seed  receptacle  in  the  sunflower,  for,  as  each  one 
of  these  capsules  is  fitted  with  its  seed,  so  is  each  one 
of  these  facets  a  distinct  cornea.  These  eyes  are  immove- 
able,  and  covered  in  a  remarkable  manner  with  a  dark- 
brown  pigment,  which  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  genuine  color  of  the  insect.  Many  of  the  races 
have,  conjointly  with  this  compound  eye,  a  simple  one, 
termed  ocella,  which  is  movable,  as,  for  instance,  those 
of  the  Crustacea.  The  number  of  legs  in  the  true  and 
perfectly-developed  insect  is  six,  the  number  of  wings 
two  or  four ;  nevertheless,  in  the  spider  and  crab  races, 
eight  feet  are  usually  found,  and  oftentimes  more.  The 
growth  of  the  genuine  insect  is  developed  only  by  the 
metamorphosis  it  undergoes,  and  after  passing  through 
several  stages,  is  perfected  at  once  when  the  chrysalis  fly 
emerges  from  the  cocoon.  The  butterfly  begins  its  life 
fully  grown ;  spiders  and  crabs  attain  perfection  by  a 
regular  growth. 

The  manner  of  life  maintained  by  this  class  of  animated 


IXSECTA.  83 

nature  is  very  different ;  the  greater  number,  having  the 
more  perfect  respiratory  apparatus,  live  on  land  ;  others, 
breathing  through  gills,  like  the  crabs,  dwell  principally 
in  the  water ;  some  live  solitary  and  alone,  troubling 
themselves  little  about  one  another,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  bees,  wasps,  and  ants,  live  in  communities,  build 
artistically-arranged  dwellings,  which  serve  for  a  general 
home  for  themselves  and  young  ones,  labor  in  concert, 
and  have  a  regular  government.  Nor  is  the  aliment  on 
which  they  feed  less  different  than  their  characteristic 
habits;  and  their  organs  vary  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  food  necessary  to  their  mode  of  life.  Some  subsist 
on  plants,  others  entirely  on  flesh ;  many  feed  on  what- 
ever substances  they  find,  and  all,  -with  few  exceptions, 
are  very  voracious.  They  provide  nests  for  their  larvae, 
exhibiting  the  most  unerring  instinct  in  their  construc- 
tion, and  the  number  of  ova  deposited  by  some  par- 
ticular insects  is  wonderful ;  nor  are  the  habitations 
which  insects  construct  for  themselves  in  all  climates 
and  countries  less  manifold  than  those  of  the  superior 
races,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  instinct  they  exhibit  in 
the  order  of  their  communities,  their  cunning  plans  for 
obtaining  food  or  escaping  from  danger,  and  the  industry 
they  display  in  their  works,  is  no  less  surprising  than 
admirable.  Found  in  all  countries  and  climates,  the 
question  has  been  asked  of  what  service  are  insects 
to  man,  as  they  are  rather  considered  pests  than  other- 
wise, the  little  use  ever  made  of  them  by  no  means 
counterbalancing  the  serious  evils  produced  by  their  rav- 
ages, both  in  the  fields  and  dwellings,  proving  the  torment 
of  men  and  animals  by  their  irritating  stingings,  which, 
in  many  cases,  are  poisonous.  Nevertheless,  as  nothing 
has  been  created  in  vain,  some  good,  as  well  as  evil,  is 


84  NATURAL   niSTORY. 

produced  by  their  agency.  Many  feed  upon  putrid  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  matters,  which  might  otherwise  become 
dangerous  or  fatal  ;  others  are  made  use  of  in  medicine 
and  the  arts  ;  a  few  furnish  food  for  man,  and  some  give 
pleasure  to  the  observer  by  their  brilliant  colors.  They 
also  serve  as  nourishment  for  many  species  of  animals, 
birds,  and  fishes  ;  and  a  few  of  the  races,  which  furnish 
honey,  wax,  and  silk  to  man,  add  much  to  his  comfort 
and  are  greatly  prized. 

Insects  are  divided  into  three  large  divisions,  namely  : 

I. —  Crustacea^  to  whichj)elong  Crabs,  Lobsters,  Sea- 
lice,  etc. 

II. — ArachnidcB,  or  Spinners,  as  Spiders,  Mites,  etc. 

III. —  True  Insects,  such  as  Centipedes,  Flies,  Crick- 
ets, Grasshoppers,  Butterflies,  Ants,  Bees,  etc. 


FIRST  DIVISION. 
CRUSTACEA. 

The  Crustacea  Class  comprises  all  of  the  race  that 
breathe  through  branchiae  that  lie  concealed  under  the 
borders  of  their  shells.  They  have  no  wings ;  the  eyes, 
of  which  most  of  them  have  two,  of  a  very  complicated 
structure,  are  composed  of  a  number  of  small  facets 
covered  with  one  cornea ;  the  head  is  provided  with  four 
antennae  or  feelers ;  the  mouth  is  furnished  with  three 
pair  of  jaws,  and  behind  these  are  the  palpi,  which  are 
small  articulated  filaments,  and  are  employed  by  the 


INSECTA.  85 

animal  in  recognizing  its  food.*  They  cast  their  shells 
often  during  life,  and  as  often  renew  them.  Most  of  the 
Crustacea  live  in  the  water  and  feed  upon  flesh.  They 
are  divided  into  two  families,  first,  those  which  have  the 
body  provided  with  regular  limbs,  and  covered  with  a 
hard  shell,  as  the  crabs;  and,  secondly,  those  of  which 
the  exterior  envelope  is  less  solid  than  that  of  the  testa- 
ceous tribes,  and  which,  bearing  more  resemblance  to  the 
mollusca,  are  therefore  termed  Molluscous  Insects. 


FIRST    ORDER. 
BRACHYURA,   OR    CRABS. 

The  River  Crab  (astacus  fluviatilis)  is  about  four 
inches  long,  and  one  inch  in  thickness ;  of  a  brownish- 
green  color ;  has  a  broad  tail ;  the  first  pair  of  legs  are 
large  pincers  or  claws ;  the  true  legs  are  situated  directly 
behind  these,  and  arranged  for  locomotion.  Crabs  are 
found  in  all  the  brooks  of  Europe,  and  are  sometimes 
kept  in  troughs  filled  daily  with  fresh  water,  but,  not- 
withstanding this  care,  do  not  live  long  ;  however,  envel- 
oped in  nettles,  they  bear  transportation.  They  crawl 
about  constantly,  both  by  day  and  night,  in  the  water ; 
and  in  the  cold  season  creep  into  holes  on  the  banks. 
Crabs  feed  on  snails,  frogs,  and  dead  fish ;  but  when  out 
of  the  water  they  will  eat  fruit — elder  berries  for  instance 
— milk  and  bran ;  in  winter  and  spring  they  are  easily 
taken  in  the  holes  to  which  they  have  retired  in  the  cold 
season ;  in  the  summer  from  under  the  stones  where  they 

*  Some  naturalists  recognize  six  pairs  of  jaws  ;  the  first  pair  are 
called  maadibles,  the  two  next  are  jaws,  properly  so  called,  and  the 
three  last  arc  termed  foot-jaws. — Tr, 


86  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

harbor.  It  is  usual  to  catch  them  in  traps  made  of 
basket-work,  baited  with  a  frog,  and  sunk  bj  means  of 
weights.  But  a  few  minutes  elapse  before  they  assemble 
around  the  bait,  and  at  the  proper  time  the  net  is  drawn 
up;  they  bite  more  readily  when  a  thunder-storm  is 
threatening.  They  turn  red  in  boiling ;  some,  however, 
of  the  cray-fish  remain  dark.  The  usual  method  of  kill- 
ing these  poor  creatures  is  by  throwing  them  into  boiling 
water  whilst  living,  and  cooks  never  consider  them  dead 
until  the  tail  stands  straight  out ;  unlike  oysters,  they 
are  best  .in  the  months  which  have  no  R  in  the  name. 
This  species  have  teeth  in  the  stomach,  and  near  them 
round  calcareous  substances,  called  crab's  eyes,  which 
are  used  in  medicine.  They  cast  their  shells  in  spring 
time,  and  retreat  into  holes ;  in  this  state  they  are  soft 
and  weak,  and  fall  an  easy  prey  to  enemies,  which  are 
often  those  of  their  own  kind.  If  a  cray-fish  loses  a 
claw  or  limb,  it  is  no  serious  matter,  as  it  grows  out 
again  almost  as  well  as  ever.  The  flesh  is  considered  a 
luxury. 

The  Lobster  (astacus  marinus),  plate  26,  fig.  4,  is  a 
foot  in  length,  and  as  thick  as  one's  arm.  The  shell  is  dark 
brown,  marbled ;  and  with  their  pincers  or  claws,  which 
are  very  strong,  they  are  able  to  inflict  severe  wounds. 
They  are  found  in  all  the  seas  of  Europe,  where  they 
are  taken  in  great  numbers,  and  sold  in  all  the  maritime 
cities  as  a  luxury.  The  American  species  is  somewhat 
different.  They  deposit  their  eggs  in  July;  resembling 
small  peas,  and  less  than  those  of  the  fresh  water  crabs. 
they  are  very  abundant,  and  remain  hanging  from  the 
body  of  the  parent,  each  one  adhering  to  the  next  by  a 
fine  filament ;  two  thousand,  thus  connected,  have  often 
been  counted  as  the  produce  of  one  lobster. 


INSECTA.  87 

The  Locusta  (palinurus  quadricornis)  are  quite  as  large 
as  the  above  described ;  the  rarapace  terminates  in  two 
long  spiny  points ;  the  color  is  a  greenish-brown ;  tail 
covered  with  yellow  spots ;  the  feet  marbled  red  and  yel- 
low. They  are  found  principally  in  the  Mediterranean, 
where  lobsters  are  scarce,  but,  like  the  latter,  when  taken 
are  observed  to  be  without  claws  or  nippers. 

The  Diogenes  or  Hermit  Crab  (pagurus  diogenes), 
also  denominated  the  Soldier  Crab,  has,  on  the  first, 
fourth,  and  fifth  foot,  a  pair  of  nippers ;  the  abdomen  is 
very  soft ;  therefore,  to  defend  itself  and  provide  a 
house,  it  seeks  the  shell  of  some  neighboring  mollusk, 
and  having  devoured  the  owner,  establishes  itself  in  the 
possession  of  the  domicil.  Sometimes,  when  valuable 
shells  have  been  laid  out  on  the  shore  to  bleach,  these 
pirates  will  crawl  into  them  at  night,  and  before  the  dep- 
redation is  discovered,  go  back  with  their  booty  into  the 
sea.  Any  attempt  made  to  dislodge  them  meets  with  a 
steady  resistance ;  they  only  retreat  farther  within,  and 
are  so  firm  in  retaining  possession,  that  oftentimes  they 
will  suffer  themselves  to  be  roasted  within  the  shell, 
rather  than  leave  it.  Many,  however,  are  driven  forth 
by  a  live  coal  being  placed  on  the  carapace.  The  sol- 
dier crab  inhabits  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  but 
there  is  a  larger  race  found  in  the  East  Indies  which 
resembles  this  in  habits  and  form. 

The  Shrimps  (crangon  vulgaris)  are  two  inches  in 
length ;  of  a  dull  green  color,  and  about  as  thick  as  a 
little  finger.  They  have  simple  feet,  which  terminate 
with  pincers ;  the  body  is  very  soft,  and  the  flesh  regarded 
as  a  dainty.  They  are  found  in  great  abundance — mil- 
lions it  is  said — on  the  coasts  of  France,  England,  and 
Germany,  and  are  much  sought  after  by  the  fishermen. 


88  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  Sea  Crab  (portunas  maenas)  has  a  hard  corselet 
on  the  breast,  which  is  somewhat  rounded,  and  causes  it 
to  resemble  a  spider  rather  than  a  crab ;  the  length  is  two 
inches,  the  breadth  the  same ;  the  tail  is  very  short,  and 
the  whole  of  the  body,  of  a  grayish-green  color,  is  rather 
square  than  oval.  The  portunas  are  found  on  all  the 
coasts  of  Europe,  where  they  live  under  stones.  If  any 
one  approaches,  they  run  off  quickly  and  hide  themselves 
in  the  mud ;  their  motion  is  mostly  sidewise.  The  flesh 
is  esteemed  best  when  the  shell  is  molted. 

The  Pocket  Crab  (cancer  pagurus)  is  about  a  span 
in  length  and  breadth ;  of  a  yellowish  color  with  black 
claws ;  it  lives  alone ;  is  common  on  the  sea  coasts  of 
Europe,  and  is  the  most  highly  esteemed  of  the  crab 
race.  The  upper  shell  is  removed,  like  that  of  the  oys- 
ster,  and  the  marrow-like  flesh  eaten  in  the  same  way. 

Resembling  it  is 

The  Spider  Crab  or  Sea  Spider  (major  squinato), 
which  is  four  inches  long,  and  three  broad,  full  of  horny 
knobs,  and  having  the  head  armed  with  a  few  spines. 

The  Common  Land  Crab  (gecarsinus  ruricola),  about 
the  size  of  a  hand,  is  dark  red.  spotted  with  yellow,  and 
is  very  abundant  in  South  America.  These  crabs  are 
essentially  terrestrial,  living,  sometimes,  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  sea-shore,  to  which  they  make  an 
annual  journey  in  order  to  deposit  their  eggs.  "When 
about  to  molt  their  shells,  they  make  holes  in  the 
earth,  which  they  cover  at  the  mouth  with  leaves  and 
dirt,  leaving  only  one  small  opening  for  entrance.  Here 
they  remain,  seemingly  immovable,  until  the  shell  is 
thrown  off.  When  these  animals  are  in  danger  of  being 
taken,  they  retreat  to  their  hiding  places  with  great 
rapidity,  and  defend  themselves  stoutly  with  their  nip- 


INSECTA.  89 

pers,  -which  they  fasten  upon  an  enemy  with  so  much 
fierceness  and  take  so  firm  a  hold,  that  very  often  a  claw 
is  left  behind,  seeming  still  to  perform  its  duty,  while 
the  owner  is  making  off.  During  the  journey  to  the 
sea,  at  spawning  time,  they  are  seen  crawling  about  in 
great  numbers,  everywhere,  and  often  find  their  way  by 
night  into  bedrooms,  where  they  creep  into  the  sleeper's 
shoes ;  therefore  it  is  not  uncommon,  on  putting  the  foot 
into  the  shoe  in  the  morning,  to  get  a  nip  from  the  pin- 
cers. As  they  are  very  good  eating  they  are  taken  in 
great  numbers. 

The  lesser  races  are  as  follows  : 

The.  Carp  Louse  (angulus  foliaceus),  which  is  flat,  of 
of  a  greenish-yellow  color,  about  or  over  two  lines  in 
length ;  they  are  found  attached  to  young  fishes,  whose 
fluids  they  suck ;  these  parasites  fasten  upon  them  in 
such  numbers  as  to  destroy  life. 

The  Sea  Lice  (cyamus  ceti)  are  oblong,  flat,  one  inch 
long,  and  have  seven  pairs  of  feet ;  are  found  adhering 
to  whales,  in  whose  fins  they  make  deep  fissures. 

The  Water  Flea  or  the  Miser  (gammarus  pulex),  is 
half  an  inch  long,  and  the  tenth  of  an  inch  or  a  line  in 
breadth;  the  fore  feet  are  armed  with  small  nippers. 
They  are  found  in  pools,  ditches,  etc. ;  swimming  around 
in  great  numbers,  they  feed  on  decaying  vegetable  mat- 
ter, roots,  and  larvae  of  water  insects ;  settle  largely  on 
water-cresses,  and  are  considered,  though  erroneously,  to 
be  poisonous. 

The  Millepedes  or  Wood  Lice  (oniscus  asellus),  are 
half  an  inch  long ;  gray,  but  have  yellow  dots  on  the 
back ;  are  found  in  all  cellars,  out-houses,  under  stones, 
etc.  They  can  not  live  except  in  damp  earth  or  shaded 
situations ;  feed  on  decaying  moss  or  leaves,  and  never 


90  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

roll  themselves  into  a  ball  before  they  leap,  as  does  the 
smaller  species  of  onisci  which  much  resembles  them. 
These  called  the  Mailed  wood  lice,  are  blue  gray,  and 
rolled  up  like  grains  of  shot,  move  about  with  great  ease. 
This  genus  was  used,  in  the  early  times,  in  medicine. 

SECOND   ORDER. 

MOLLUSCOUS     INSECTS. 

Among  which  belong, 

The  One-Eye  (polyphemus  oculus) ;  these  creatures  are 
extremely  small,  and  abound  in  stagnant  waters,  where 
they  swim  about  most  actively ;  in  size  not  greater  than  a 
flea ;  have  one  large  eye,  two  feelers,  and  a  forked  tail. 

The  Fork  Fleas  (daphnia  pulex),  as  large  as  the  head 
of  a  pin;  congregate  in  such  numbers  as  to  give  the 
waters  in  which  they  harbor  a  red  appearance,  and  if 
some  vegetable  filaments  are  thrown  among  them,  their 
lively  movements  can  easily  be  distinguished,  as  they 
swim  around  the  new  object  in  ceaseless  and  innumerable 
circlings. 


SECOND    DIVISION. 

ARACHNOIDES,    OR    SPINNERS. 

FIRST    ORDER. 
ARACIINIDIANS,  OR   INSECTS   OF   THE   SPIDER   KIND. 

This  division  includes  two  orders,  namely,  such  as 
breathe  through  lungs,  and  others,  which,  like  insects, 
are  provided  with  trachea  or  spiracles,  as  mites. 


INSECTA.  91 

The  first  order  is  separated  into  two  families,  namely, 
Spiders  and  Scorpions. 

The  Arachnce,  or  Spider  has  eight  legs,  and  from  six 
to  eight  eyes.  On  the  posterior  portion  of  the  body  are 
found  five  warts,  termed  spinnerets,  by  whose  agency  the 
silk,  a  matter  secreted  by  a  peculiar  apparatus  in  the 
abdomen  of  the  spider,  escapes  through  a  small  opening, 
and  is  spun  into  threads  of  delicate  texture  but  considerable 
strength.  These  threads,  at  the  moment  of  escaping 
from  the  spinnerets,  are  glutinous  and  require  to  be 
dried  before  employed,  but  in  weather  when  the  tempera- 
ture is  favorable,  a  single  instant  is  sufficient  for  this 
purpose ;  nevertheless,  while  it  is  yet  moist  the  spider 
fastens  the  ends  of  the  threads  to  such  objects  as  are 
intended  to  support  the  structure  of  his  web.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  manufacture  gloves  and  stockings 
from  spiders'  silk,  but  without  success,  as  the  quantity 
furnished  by  each  is  so  small  that  it  would  require  en- 
tirely too  many  spiders  to  obtain  it  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  be  useful.  Most  spiders,  as  is  well  known,  construct 
their  webs  very  skillfully,  with  a  peculiar  hiding-place 
in  the  center  or  bottom,  in  which  citadel  it  places  itself. 
The  slightest  movement  of  one  of  the  threads  which  go 
out  from  the  net  gives  notice  that  a  victim  is  caught, 
and  in  an  instant  the  wily  watcher  sallies  forth  and  seizes 
the  prey.  Many  spiders  have  their  mandibles  furnished 
with  a  kind  of  venomous  dart,  with  which  he  pierces 
the  victim ;  one  stroke  is  mostly  sufficient ;  this  accom- 
plished, the  spider  sucks  the  juices,  and  rejects  all  the 
other  portions  of  the  body.  The  female  spiders  also 
employ  their  silk  in  constructing  bags  to  contain  their 
eggs,  until  the  young  are  able  to  come  forth.  They  are 
a  fierce  and  voracious  race,  and  when  confined  attack  and 


92  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

prey  upon  their  own  kind  without  mercy.  The  most 
remarkable  of  this  class  is 

The  Great  American  or  Bird  Spider  (my  gale  avicu- 
laria),  plate  26,  fig.  2,  which  is  the  largest  known  of  all 
the  spider  race.  The  hody  is  about  two  inches  in  length, 
black,  and  covered  with  strong  hairs,  as  are  also  the 
feet,  which  are  well  proportioned  strong  and  large  ;  the 
anterior  extremities  are  provided  with  hooked  claws. 
They  construct  a  net  at  least  two  feet  wide  and  about  as 
thick  as  fine  muslin ;  at  one  end  is  a  bag  almost  as  large 
as  a  pigeon's  egg,  in  which  the  spider  deposits  its  eggs 
to  the  number  of  one  hundred.  They  are  found  in 
South  America,  mostly  in  the  primeval  forests,  but  at 
times  are  found  in  the  houses,  going  forth  at  night  in 
search  of  food,  which,  for  the  m3st  part,  consists  of  insects, 
although  they  kill  small  birds  also,  and  are  particularly 
dangerous  to  the  young  brood  of  Colibri.  If  unwarily 
seized,  they  will  bite,  and  the  mandibles,  being  provided 
with  venom,  distill  into  the  wound  a  poison  that  acts 
promptly  and  produces  inflammation,  which  is  sometimes 
dangerous.  There  is  a  relative  species  which  live  in 
holes  in  the  earth. 

The  Common  Spider  (aranea  domestica).  Scarcely 
half  an  inch  in  size,  of  a  brownish -gray,  oval-shaped 
and  hairy,  it  makes  a  thick  web,  as  is  well  known,  in 
every  corner ;  situated  at  one  end  of  the  net  is  a  tube, 
into  which  they  drag  the  flies  when  they  have  captured 
them.  They  are  very  industrious  spinners,  and  although 
their  work  may  be  destroyed  many  times,  they  renew 
their  webs  in  a  very  short  space.  The  spinning  material 
is,  however,  at  last  exhausted,  and  then,  when  in  want  of 
food,  they  live  by  piracy,  and  rob  others.  The  skins  are 
cast  annually,  and  they  divest  themselves  so  adroitly  of 


INSECTA.  93 

the  old  covering,  that  it  is  easy  to  mistake  the  cast-off 
integument  for  a  genuine  spider.  The  handsomest  of  the 
spider  race  is 

The  Cross  Spider  (epeira  diadema),  and  well  known. 
The  posterior  portion  of  the  body  is  large,  round,  and 
either  dark  brown  or  reddish ;  when  of  the  first-men- 
tioned color,  it  is  ornamented  with  white  lines,  and  of  the 
second,  with  yellow  in  the  shape  of  a  cross.  They  are 
skillful  spinners,  and  arrange  their  webs  perpendicularly 
between  two  garden  posts,  or  in  the  forks  of  a  tree.  The 
manner  in  which  they  spin  is  remarkable.  Choosing  a 
firm  position,  they  draw  one  thread  of  two  or  three  yards 
long,  leaving  the  end  loose  and  flying  until  it  fastens  it- 
self somewhere  ;  this  serves  as  a  kind  of  bridge,  and  the 
spider  running  backward  and  forward  upon  it,  most  assi- 
duously doubles  and  strengthens  it  for  a  foundation.  The 
bridge  or  scaffolding  thus  completed,  the  spider  makes  a 
number  of  parallel  threads,  then,  with  the  same  artistic 
precision,  arranges  others  across,  using  the  same  clammy 
substance  to  bind  them  to  each  other  and  perfect  the 
structure,  a  work  which  in  clear  weather  is  accomplished 
very  rapidly.  At  length  the  little  creature  retires  to  a 
retreat  formed  in  the  bottom  or  middle  of  the  web, 
where,  with  its  head  directed  downwards,  it  lies  in  wait 
for  unwary  insects,  which,  when  of  the  smaller  kind,  are 
soon  seized,  dragged  in  this  cell,  and  devoured.  Some 
of  the  larger  flies  make  strong  resistance ;  in  such  a  case 
the  spider  hastens  to  bind  the  victim  fast  by  spinning 
strong  threads  round  its  body,  so  that  it  can  neither  move 
its  wings  nor  feet ;  the  prey  thus  secured,  the  tyrant 
proceeds  to  devour  it  at  once,  or  retains  it  in  its  silken 
bonds  to  feed  upon  it  at  leisure.  The  female  cross  spider 
is  larger  than  the  male,  producing  in  autumn  a  thousand 


94  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

yellowish  eggs,  which  they  inclose  in  hags  or  cocoons, 
spun  over  with  silk ;  this  important  task  accomplished, 
the  mother  spider  dies.  The  young  come  forth  in  May, 
and  soon  afterwards  hegin  to  spin.  As  they  begin  life 
by  hundreds,  and  can,  consequently,  do  much  damage  in 
gardens,  it  is  necessary  to  destroy  them,  which  is  easily 
done  with  spirits  of  turpentine.  This  family  is  not 
poisonous. 

The  Water  Spider  (argyroneta  aquatica)  is  longish, 
dark  brown,  with  hairy  feet,  and  lives  the  whole  year 
round  in  stagnant  waters  and  ditches  ;  it  does  not,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  run  on  the  top  of  the  water,  but 
swims.  Water  spiders  have  large  pincers  in  front ;  they 
swim  on  their  backs,  turning  the  under  surface  of  their 
bodies  upwards.  As  they  dart  along  on  the  top  of  the 
water,  they  look  like  little  balls  of  quicksilver.  This 
brilliant  appearance  is  bestowed  by  the  air-bladders  found 
on  the  posterior  part  of  the  body  and  feet.  When  they 
want  a  new  inspiration,  they  turn  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  body  outwards.  Their  appearance  under  the 
water  is  very  remarkable ;  they  are  enclosed  in  a  bubble 
of  air  which  surrounds  them  like  a  box.  This  bubble, 
looking  like  a  diving-bell  made  of  thick,  white  silk,  is 
about  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg,  adheres  to  their  hairs, 
and  enclosed  within  it,  they  perform  their  several  func- 
tions of  eating,  spinning,  etc.,  without  any  disturbance 
to  their  operations. 

The  Tarantula  (lycosa  tarantula)  is  one  inch  long, 
spotted  black  above,  red  below,  and  is  found  in  southern 
Italy  and  North  Africa.  Their  bite  is  considered  dan- 
gerous, particularly  in  hot  weather.  It  was  a  popular 
belief  in  the  early  times,  and  still  exists  in  lower  Italy, 
that  the  bite  of  the  tarantula  occasioned  a  kind  of  St. 


INSECTA.  95 

Vitus's  dance,  in  which  the  person  bitten  was  obliged  to 
laugh  and  skip  about  until  he  sunk  down  exhausted. 
This  dreadful  disorder  is  said  to  be  cured  only  by  music  ; 
for  this  purpose  a  particular  tune,  called  the  Tarantelle, 
is  played  in  presence  of  the  sufferer,  and  believed  to  be 
an  infallible  remedy. 

The  Mowers  or  Weavers  (phalangium  opilio)  have 
small,  roundish  bodies,  with  remarkably  long  legs ;  not 
larger  than  peas,  they  are  brown-gray  above,  whitish 
below  ;  in  the  summer  months  they  are  found  in  consid- 
erable numbers,  living  on  trees  and  walls.  They  are 
very  active  and,  when  running,  appear  as  if  mounted  on 
stilts ;  their  legs  break  off  readily  on  being  touched,  and 
move  convulsively  for  some  time  after  being  separated 
from  the  trunk.  They  feed  upon  flies  and  mites.  A 
relative  species,  but  bearing  more  resemblance  to  the 
tarantula,  is  found  in  southern  Russia,  and  considered 
poisonous. 

The  Common  Scorpion  (scorpio  europseus)  is  one 
inch  long  without  including  the  tail,  has  pincers  in  front 
like  the  crab ;  the  tail  is  composed  of  six  rings  or  joints, 
terminating  in  an  excessively  acute  point  or  sting,  arcu- 
ated outwards.  Scorpions  are  vivaparous ;  they  are 
very  abundant  in  Italy,  concealing  themselves  under 
stones  and  other  bodies,  mostly,  however,  in  ruins,  and 
sometimes  in  houses.  Keeping  closely  in  their  retreats 
during  the  day,  they  sally  forth  at  night,  run  actively 
everywhere,  moving  their  pincers  and  elevating  their 
tails.  The  sting  of  the  scorpion  produces  severe  inflam- 
mation, but  in  Europe  is  seldom  fatal.  These  irascible 
creature  will  not  bear  imprisonment ;  if  a  scorpion  is 
confined  in  a  glass  jar  or  hemmed  in  by  fire,  as  soon  as 
it  finds  escape  impossible,  it  stings  itself  to  death.  The 


96  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

males  have  fearful  battles  with  each  other,  mostly  from 
jealousy,  -which  end  fatally.  The  Indian  Scorpion,  which 
is  found  in  Guinea  and  Ceylon,  but  principally  in  India, 
resembles  the  European,  is  very  venomous  and  the  sting 
more  likely  to  produce  serious  consequences.  The  remedy 
usually  employed  is  olive  oil,  in  which  a  scorpion  has 
been  suffered  to  die ;  or  even  the  flesh  of  the  creature 
itself,  applied  to  the  wound,  is  considered  a  specific. 

The  Dracunculus  (thelephonus  caudatus),  plate  26, 
fig.  6,  is  as  large  as  the  European  scorpion,  has  short 
nippers,  and  looks  much  like  a  field  cricket,  and,  from 
having  a  long,  thread-like  tail,  is  called  the  thread  scor- 
pion. Its  color  is  a  handsome  dark  red,  and  between  the 
rings  milk-white.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies. 
Its  habits  are  unknown. 


ORDER  II. 
ARACHNIDA  TRACHEARIA. 

To  this  order  of  spiders,  which  breathe  through  tra- 
chea, belongs,  first, 

The  Paper  Moth,  Book  Scorpion(  obisiurn  cancroides), 
which  resembles  a  bug,  is  flat,  has  long  pincers  in  front, 
found  in  Europe  and  America  during  the  whole  year, 
harbors  among  paper,  in  old  books,  and  under  the  barks 
of  trees,  etc.,  feeds  on  small  insects,  mites,  book  worms, 
and  wood  lice,  and  is  therefore  a  useful  creature,  and 
deserves  the  protection  of  man.  It  has  no  sting,  and 
never  resists  an  enemy. 

The  Dog  Tick  (ixodes  caninus)  is  as  large  as  a  grain 
of  hempseed,  of  a  dark  violet  color,  with  brown  head 
and  feet,  lives  on  different  species  of  plants  found  in  the 


•  97 

woods,  namely,  the  various  mosses.  These  pests  attach 
themselves  to  hunting  dogs,  upon  which  they  drop  from 
the  trees,  and  fasten  so  closely  by  means  of  their  pro- 
boscis which  is  barbed,  that  it  is  difficult  to  remove  them 
when  they  are  once  fairly  inserted  in  the  skin.  When 
filled  to  repletion  they  are  as  large  as  a  small  hazelnut ; 
these  parasitic  arachnidans  are  not  only  a  torment  to 
dogs,  but  they  also  attach  themselves  to  oxen  and  other 
four-footed  beasts,  and  not  even  sparing  man.  A  few 
drops  of  sweet  oil,  it  is  said,  kills  them,  and  they  fall  off 
immediately;  nevertheless,  spirits  of  turpentine  is  per- 
haps more  reliable  in  its  effects.  If  detached  too  hastily 
the  sting  remains  in  the  skin  and  excites  inflammation. 
Resembling  this  species  is 

The  Sheep  Tick,  which  differs  only  in  color,  which  is 
gray,  with  black  on  the  feet  and  back. 

The  American  Tick  (acarus  americanus)  is  also  as 
large  as  a  grain  of  hempseed,  but  when  it  has  sucked  its 
fill,  it  is  enlarged  to  the  size  of  the  end  of  a  finger  ;  its 
shape  is  oval ;  its  color  red  with  white  dots  on  the  back. 
They  are  very  numerous,  and  constitute  a  true  pest. 
Their  sting  is  so  fine  that  its  entrance  into  the  flesh  is 
not  remarked  until  it  has  been  insinuated  to  some  depth, 
when  it  is  necessary  to  extract  it  carefully  with  a  pair  of 
forceps  arranged  for  the  purpose.  When  they  have  satis- 
fied their  voracity  to  the  full,  they  drop  off,  but  not 
without  having  first  made  a  nest  of  the  wound  under  the 
skin,  in  which  they  deposit  an  immense  number  of  eggs  ; 
these  suffered  to  remain,  great  irritation  ensues,  occasion- 
ing hectic  fever.  The  pain  is  said  to  be  intolerable,  and 
a  disease  is  created  which  destroys  life,  both  in  man  and 
beast. 

A  relative  species  is  found  in  Persia,  the  sting  of 


98  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

which  is  fatal  to  Europeans,  but  never  injurious  to  the 
natives. 

The  Cheese  Mite  (acarus  casei)  is  very  small,  soft, 
and  has  feet  which  terminate  in  points,  resembling  small 
bladders.  Seen  through  a  magnifying-glass,  they  appear 
like  oval  bodies,  white,  spotted  with  brown,  and  provided 
with  long  hairs,  which  are  movable.  They  abound  in 
old  cheese,  mouldy  bread,  etc. 

The  Meal  Tick  (acarus  farinse)  resembles  the  fore- 
going, but  is  smaller;  is  white,  head  and  feet  reddish. 
These  creatures  live  by  millions  in  old  meal ;  when  dried 
fruits  are  kept  long,  they  become  covered  with  a  white 
substance  resembling  sugar,  whi»h  is,  however,  nothing 
more  than  a  collection  of  mites,  that  thus  envelope  and 
destroy  the  article.  Similar  plagues  find  their  way  into 
feathers,  old  books,  etc.,  in  short,  into  everything  capa- 
ble of  being  destroyed. 

The  Aquatic  Mite  (hydrochna  aquatica),  the  hand- 
somest of  the  species ;  is  small,  scarlet-colored,  and  may 
be  seen  swimming  lustily  around  in  all  stagnant  waters. 


THIRD   DIVISION. 
TRUE   INSECTS.— HEXAPODS    (SIX-FOOTED). 

The  genuine  Insect  race  differs  from  the  Arachnidae 
and  Crustacea  in  the  arrangement  of  their  respiratory 
organs  (breathing,  without  exception,  through  trachea), 
as  well  as  in  the  possession  of  wings,  and  the  presence 
of  six  feet.  Some,  indeed,  are  without  wings,  and 
might,  perhaps,  with  propriety  be  classed  in  the  orders 


INSECTA.  99 

already  described.  All  insects  undergo  certain  meta- 
morphoses, but  the  changes  are  not  always  of  the  same 
nature ;  some  experience  only  a  partial  metamorphosis ; 
some  a  demi-metamorphosis,  and  others  a  complete  change. 
They  are  divided  into  winged  and  unwinged.  The  first 
undergo  a  perfect  transformation,  such  as  the  butterfly, 
which  passes  through  several  stages;  first,  the  larvae; 
then  the  nympha ;  and,  lastly,  attains  the  state  of  a  per- 
fected creature  in  the  form  of  a  butterfly.  Some,  termed 
suctorial  insects,  do  not  undergo  any  metamorphosis, 
and  are  unwinged ;  others,  which  are  apterous  or  un- 
winged, such  as  the  locust  and  grasshopper,  are  subject 
to  a  partial  transformation.  All,  with  the  exception  of 
the  millipedes,  have  six  feet,  as  soon  as  the  full  perfec- 
tion is  attained.  They  are  divided  into  five  orders.* 

FIRST  ORDER:  ..  APTERA.— Insects  without  any  wings ;  millipedes, 

spiders,  etc. 

SECOND  ORDER :  COLEOPTEKA.— Beetles,  etc. 
THIRD  ORDER:  .  OKTHOPTEEA.— Crickets,  Locusts,  etc. 
FOURTH  ORDER:  LEPIDOPTEEA.— Butterflies. 
FIFTH  ORDER : . .  HTMEROPTERA.— Bees,  Gnats,  etc. 


FIRST     ORDER. 
APTERA.— UNWINGED   INSECTS. 

The  Millipede  (julus  terrestris)  belongs  to  this  order, 
and  has  a  long  cylindrical  body,  like  an  earth-worm, 

*  Modern  naturalists  have  divided  insects  into  eleven  orders.  Lin- 
naeus forms  them  into  seven,  founding  the  division  upon  the  absence 
or  presence  of  wings ;  their  number,  texture,  arrangement,  and  nature 
of  their  surface;  and  upon  the  existence  or  absence  of  a  sting. 
Many  follow  Linnaeus,  because  his  classification,  being  more  simple, 
affords  to  the  general  reader,  upon  the  whole,  a  clearer  view  of  the 


100  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

covered  with  a  hard  skin  divided  into  segments,  resem- 
bling that  of  a  cellar  worm  ;  its  length  is  one  inch  and  a 
half;  color,  blue-gray  with  yellow  spots;  it  has,  it  is 
said,  eighty  feet,  and  on  the  posterior  segment,  a  sting ; 
it  rolls  itself  into  a  spiral  form.  Most  of  this  genus  live 
under  stones,  where  they  find  nourishment  among  de- 
cayed wood,  etc.  In  crawling,  they  touch  the  earth 
frequently  with  their  feelers ;  the  young  at  first  have 
only  six  legs,  but  as  they  experience  an  imperfect  meta- 
morphosis, the  number  increases.  If  rubbed  between  the 
fingers  they  emit  an  unpleasant  odor.  They  deposit 
their  eggs  in  the  earth ;  a  relative  kind,  nine  inches 
long  and  as  thick  as  a  finger,  is  found  in  South  America. 

The  Centipedes  (scolopendra  morsitans),  plate  26, 
fig.  7,  have  a  flat,  ribbon-like  body,  divided  into  hard 
segments ;  their  mouths  are  furnished  with  small,  sharp 
teeth,  which  are  hollow  and  filled  with  venom.  They 
are  six  inches  long,  and  nearly  half  an  inch  in  breadth ; 
have  twenty-one  pairs  of  feet,  and  eight  eyes.  The 
color  is  yellow,  with  black  on  the  edges.  They  are 
found  in  the  torrid  zone,  living  among  rotten  wood,  in 
books,  straw,  etc.  The  bite  is  very  painful,  but  not 
deadly.  They  have  been  carried,  living,  to  Holland,  by 
ships  in  which  they  harbored.  Insects  wounded  by  them 
die  instantly.  They  will  crawl  over  the  faces  of  persons 
sleeping,  and  on  any  attempt  to  take  them,  bite  severely. 

The  Sugar  Worm  (lepisma  saccharina)  is  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  covered  with  silvery 
scales ;  has  six  feet ;  long  hairy  feelers,  and  three  sim- 

subject  than  could  be  presented  in  the  same  compass  by  following 
the  later  and  more  strictly  anatomical  methods  of  other  naturalists. 
The  author  of  the  present  -work  has  simplified  still  more,  by  dividing 
insects  into  five  orders  only. — Tr. 


INSECTA.  101 

ilar  filaments  at  the  caudal  extremity.  It  harbors  in 
damp  places,  and  delights  in  articles  made  of  sugar; 
runs  rapidly,  shooting  forward  like  a  fish.  Although 
found  in  Europe,  it  is  not  a  native,  but  has  been  carried 
there  from  America. 

The  Louse  (pediculus  capitis).  This  well  known  pest 
is  about  a  line  in  length,  only  half  as  broad ;  the  skin  is 
hard  and  parchment-like,  and  when  roughly  pressed 
cracks  with  a  noise.  It  has  six  feet ;  in  front  is  a  prob- 
oscis or  sucker,  with  which  it  pierces  the  skin.  It 
infests  the  head  of  human  beings  and  other  warm-blooded 
animals,  and  multiplies  most  rapidly.  Within  the  space 
of  six  days  a  louse  will  lay  fifty  eggs,  which  are  called 
nits  ;  in  six  more  the  young  come  forth,  so  that  in  eight 
weeks  one  louse  grandmother  can  number  five  thousand 
descendants.  If  a  louse,  placed  upon  a  human  head,  is 
examined  through  a  magnifying  glass,  it  will  be  seen 
first  to  search  for  a  pore  into  which  it  insinuates  its  pro- 
boscis, and  the  body  being  transparent,  a  stream  of  blood 
is  at  once  perceived  to  rush  into  the  stomach.  Lice 
belong  to  temperate  climates  only ;  it  is  said  that  they 
are  certain  to  vanish  from  any  one,  however  lousy  he 
may  be,  as  soon  as  the  equator  is  passed.  Those  found 
on  the  negroes — a  case  which  never  occurs  south  of  the 
line — are  black,  and  smaller  than  those  which  infest  the 
white  races.  There  are  several  other  species  found  in 
clothing,  etc. ;  some  are  very  small,  others  as  large  as 
an  apple  seed ;  these  abound  in  Mexico.  A  strong 
decoction  of  parsley  seed,  it  is  said,  secures  an  effectual 
riddance  of  these  disgusting  vermin. 

The  Flea  (pulex  irritans)  is  reddish-brown,  and  about 
half  a  line  in  length  ;  the  body  is  encased  in  a  kind  of 
finely-wrought  armor.  It  has  a  sharp  trunk  which  it 


102  NATUKAL   HISTORY. 

buries  in  the  skin,  and  the  legs  are  adapted  for  leaping. 
Fleas  are  not  only  the  pests  of  man,  but  harbor  in  the 
hair  of  dogs,  cats,  etc. ;  it  is  said  that  they  do  not  trouble 
horses,  because  the  odor  of  that  animal  is  offensive  to 
them.  They  never  live  in  localities,  like  the  louse,  but 
spring  about  everywhere.  They  deposit  their  eggs  in 
rotten  wood  or  damp  dust,  the  larvae  soon  appear,  and 
shortly  afterwards  the  flea  is  developed.  The  female  is 
larger  than  the  male ;  the  trunk  is  provided  with  two 
valves,  or  rather  feelers,  on  each  side,  between  which  it 
can  move  back  or  forwards.  It  is  seldom  met  with  in 
the  torrid  zone.  These  little  creatures  possess  remark- 
able strength,  and  oftentimes  overleap  a  space  one  hun- 
dred times  greater  than  the  length  of  their  bodies.  They 
have  been  instructed  to  perform  many  wonderful  feats, 
which,  exhibited  by  itinerant  showmen  and  known  to 
most,  need  no  particular  description ;  however,  it  is  curi- 
ous enough  to  see  them  draw  miniature  wagons  and  can- 
non, which  greatly  exceed  their  own  bodies  in  size  and 
weight. 

The  Sand  Flea  (pulex  penetrans),  called  in  America 
Chigre.  is  very  common  in  South  America,  where  it 
lives  in  the  sand ;  is  only  one-third  as  large  as  the  com- 
mon flea,  but  resembles  it  closely  in  bodily  structure, 
except  that  the  legs  are  not  so  long.  The  female  chigre 
insinuates  herself  beneath  the  skin,  particularly  about 
the  feet  and  toes,  where  she  deposits  her  eggs.  These 
are  carried  in  a  kind  of  sack  under  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  body,  and  thus  inserted  beneath  the  nails  or  in 
other  portions  of  the  skin,  cause  great  pain  and  ill-con- 
ditioned sores.  The  only  remedy  is  to  extract  the  flea 
and  sack  at  once,  taking  care  not  to  break  the  latter. 
This  is  easily  done  by  attending  to  the  first  intimation 


INSECTA.  103 

of  the  presence  of  the  flea,  but  if  neglected,  serious  con- 
sequences ensue,  making  amputation  necessary.  The 
term  sand  flea  is  hardly  proper,  as  the  little  vermin  are 
found  more  frequently  in  clayey  ground  than  sand,  and 
are  most  abundant  in  spots  recently  cleared  from  prime- 
val growth,  and  where  previously  they  were  altogether 
unknown. 


SECOND    ORDER. 

COLEOPTERA .— B  E  E  T  L  E  S  . 

This  order  comprises  insects  having  four  wings,  of 
which  the  first  pair  are  horn-like,  seeming  intended 
more  as  a  covering  to  the  second  pair,  which  are  mem- 
braneous, than  for  flight.  The  number  included  in 
this  order  is  more  numerous  than  that  of  any  other,  and 
they  are  the  most  remarkable  among  the  subjects  of  the 
Third  Branch  of  the  Animal  Kingdom,  not  only  for  the 
superior  beauty  of  their  bodily  structure  and  brilliant 
coloring,  but  the  peculiarity  of  their  habits.  In  many 
of  the  classes,  the  palpi  or  suckers  are  so  strong  that 
they  are  able  to  divide  hard  substances  very  readily. 
The  anterior  portion  of  the  body  is  enveloped  in  a  solid 
cuirass,  that  is  very  frequently  found  armed  with  prickles. 
When  the  insect  is  in  a  state  of  repose,  the  membraneous 
or  inner  wings  are  folded  up  under  the  outer  shield ;  but 
when  about  to  fly,  the  wing-covers  are  opened,  and  they 
are  spread  forth. 

From  the  eggs  of  these  beetles,  which  deposit  them  in 
decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  proceed  larvae. 
These  are  worm-like  in  the  first  stage  of  their  existence, 
and  termed  maggots.  The  head  is  scaly,  and,  being  car- 


104  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

nivorous,  they  are  at  once  provided  with  instruments  for 
.mastication,  and  commonly  have  six  feet.  They  are  very 
voracious,  and  grow  rapidly.  Sometimes,  however,  they 
remain  several  years  in  the  larvae  state  before  their  met- 
amorphosis is  perfected.  These  larvae,  or  soft  worms, 
are  found  in  all  the  places  were  the  eggs  were  laid,  living 
on  mold,  manure,  and  all  decaying  substances.  When 
fully  grown  they  pass  into  the  pupa  or  chrysalis  state,  in 
which,  seeming  totally  without  life,  they  require  no  food, 
A  few,  however,  spin  themselves  cocoons  for  a  resting- 
place  during  the  transition  state,  remaining  simply  in 
their  usual  home.  Most  of  the  nymphae  are  of  a  yel- 
lowish white  color  ;  some  are  inclosed  in  a  coriaceous  cell 
like  the  aurelia  of  the  butterfly,  in  the  shape  of  which 
the  form  of  the  perfected  insect  is  plainly  visible. 

The  immense  number  of  the  Coleoptera  or  Cockchafer 
kind,  reckoned  at  twenty-four  thousand  families,  of  which 
the  tenth  part  belongs  to  Europe,  are  divided  into  three 
parts,  namely,  Herbivorous,  or  plant-eaters,  Carnivorous, 
or  flesh-eaters,  and  Anobia,  or  those  that  feed  on  farina- 
ceous substances,  such  as  the  dust  of  decayed  wood,  etc. 

I. — HERBIVOROUS  INSECTS. 

The  bodies  of  insects  belonging  to  this  family  are  cyl- 
indrical ;  the  feelers  like  stiff  hairs ;  the  legs  are  com- 
Dosed  of  a  number  of  joints.  Three  families  belong  to 
this  division.  Trunk  Beetles,  or  Scarabeae,  Leaf-eaters, 
and  Wood  Beetles. 

1. ScARABE.E,  OR    BEETLES, 

With  a  probosci,  have  elongated  heads,  ending  with  a 
trunk-like  muzzle,  on  the  end  of  which,  gradually  grow- 


IXSECTA.  105 

ing  thicker  towards  the  outward  termination,  are  eleven 
feelers,  composed  of  joints.  The  feet  are  strong,  pro- 
vided with  four  jointed  toes.  Both  the  perfected  insect 
and  larvae  live  in  different  portions  of  plants,  which, 
partly  fresh  and  partly  withered,  are  yet  not  really  de- 
cayed. They  make  a  cocoon  of  resin  or  silk,  into  which 
they  retire  to  accomplish  their  metamorphosis.  They  do 
great  injury  in  gardens,  forests,  and  fields. 

The  Beech  Beetle  or  Springer  (orchestes  fagi),  plate 
24,  fig.  1,  is  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  length  ;  black,  with 
feelers  of  reddish-brown  ;  segments  of  the  legs  the  same ; 
•wing-coverings,  or  elytra,  arranged  in  rows  and  dotted. 
Their  legs  are  constituted  for  leaping,  and  they  live  on 
the  beech  trees,  where  they  devour  the  leaves  and  fruit. 

The  Orchard  Beetle  (anthonomus  pomorum),  is  rather 
more  than  a  line  in  length  ;  the  body  enveloped  in  a  coa.t 
of  grayish  down ;  general  color  brown  ;  covering  of  the 
back  white ;  and  feeds  on  the  blossoms  of  the  fruit  trees. 
The  larvae,  which  are  peculiarly  abundant  in  wet  sea- 
sons, live  in  the  buds,  mostly  choosing  those  of  the 
weaker  trees,  to  which  they  do  great  injury.  Their 
metamorphosis  takes  place  at  the  end  of  May,  after  the 
larvse  have  destroyed  the  germs  of  fruit. 

The  Pine  Beetle  (rhynch  genus  pini)  is  above  half  an 
inch  in  length,  with  a  very  long,  thick  trunk,  and  short 
feelers  ;  of  a  brown  color,  dotted  and  striped  with  black. 
It  is  very  injurious  to  pine  forests,  particularly  to  young 
or  sickly  trees,  as  it  pierces  the  bark  and  buds  with  its 
trunk.  The  larvae  make  great  havoc,  as  they  penetrate 
to  the  alburnum  or  sapwood.  The  best  way  of  exter- 
minating these  vermin  is  to  cut  down  the  declining  trees, 
clear  off  all  fallen  timber  from  the  ground,  and  spare  the 
certhia,  or  creepers,  which  are  their  natural  enemies. 
5* 


106  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

The  Nut  Borer  (balaninus  nucum),  from  two  to  three 
lines  in  length,  is  black,  but  covered  thickly  with  brown 
hair ;  head,  feelers,  corselet,  and  feet  are  lighter.  The 
trunk,  long  and  fine,  serves  to  pierce  an  opening  into  the 
unripe  acorns  and  hazelnuts,  where  the  eggs  from  which 
the  larvae  develop  are  deposited. 

The  Weevils  (calandria  granaria)  are  the  tenth  of  an 
inch  in  length  ;  dark  red  or  brown,  with  striped  wings, 
and  a  very  long,  dotted,  gray  breast-plate.  They  deposit 
their  eggs  in  grain  stored  up  in  granaries,  mostly  in  the 
spring  time.  The  larvae  eat  the  whole  inside,  leaving 
nothing  but  the  husk.  Their  metamorphosis  is  accom- 
plished in  four  or  five  weeks.  The  perfect  insect  is  then 
developed,  and  also  feeds  upon  the  grain.  The  increase 
of  these  destructive  insects  is  immense,  as  one  weevil  will 
deposit  one  hundred  and  fifty  eggs.  They  generally  keep 
a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  heaped  up  grain  ; 
in  the  fall  they  creep  further  down  within  it,  and  in  the 
spring  once  more  come  forth.  The  best  means  of  getting 
rid  of  these  destructive  vermin  is  by  winnowing  the  grain, 
or  suffering  free  admission  of  cold  air  to  the  granary. 
The  grain  they  have  fed  upon  becomes  very  light,  and 
having  lost  its  farinaceous  portion,  swims  on  the  top  of 
water. 

The  Diamond  Beetle  (entimus  imperials),  plate  22, 
fig.  10,  is  nearly  one  inch  in  length ;  has  deep  furrows 
on  the  wing-covers ;  black,  with  stripes  and  spots  of  bril- 
liant green  and  gold:  color,  which  sparkle  in  all  glitter- 
ing splendor.  It  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  where  the  ladies 
wear  it  in  their  hair. 

The  Red  Weevil  (apion  frumentarius),  or  Cornworm, 
plate  22,  fig.  11,  is  one  line  and  a  half  in  length ;  of  a 
blood-red  color,  with  black  eyes  ;  ridged  elytra,  and  thin 


INSECTA.  107 

pointed  proboscis.  Manner  of  life  of  this  species  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Calandra,  but  they  are  neither  so  nu- 
merous nor  injurious. 

2.— INSECTS  THAT  FEED  ON  LEAVES,  OR  LEAF-EATERS. 

The  head  is  blunt ;  the  body  oval ;  the  feelers  straight 
and  bristle-like ;  legs  composed  of  four  or  five  joints, 
and,  in  many,  are  adapted  for  leaping.  They  live  on  the 
buds  and  leaves  of  plants. 

The  Ground  Fleas  (haltica  oleracea)  are  a  line  and  a 
half  long,  of  a  brilliant  blue-green,  with  black  feelers. 
They  are  very  hurtful  to  many  garden-plants,  especially 
those  of  the  cress  kind.  The  method  of  protecting  the 
plants  from  their  ravages  is  by  placing  limed  twigs 
across  the  beds,  and  shaking  the  plants,  the  insects 
spring  upon  them,  and  are  caught.  There  are  several 
relative  species. 

The  Poplar  Bug  (chrysomela  populi).  Four  lines 
long,  head  and  corselet  dark  blue,  elytra  red,  with  black 
borders ;  found  on  the  leaves  of  the  black  and  silver 
poplar,  willow,  etc.,  on  the  leaves  of  which  they  feed 
voraciously. 

3. — WOOD  BEETLES, 

Have  rather  long,  cylindrical  bodies,  which  differ  much 
in  size.  Both  insect  and  larvae  live  in  dry  and  growing 
wood,  which  they  injure  greatly  by  eating  galleries 
through  it. 

The  Pine  Scarabeus  (bostrichus  thypographus),  plate 
22,  fig.  6.  More  than  two  lines  in  length,  of  various 
shades  of  color,  from  light  brown  to  black  ;  the  corselet 


108  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

is  knobbed  or  rugged.  The  female  is  larger  than  the 
male,  and  has  the  fore  part  of  the  head  covered  with 
hairs.  This  beetle  is  found  only  in  the  pine  woods, 
•where  it  commits  great  ravages,  not  only  on  the  living 
tree,  but  also  on  the  felled  timber.  The  increase  is  very 
rapid  and  numerous,  being  two  broods  in  one  year.  The 
eggs,  white  and  shining,  are  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of 
millet,  and  are  arranged  in  galleries  under  the  bark. 
Each  larva  eats  a  new  passage  for  itself  in  the  alburnum 
or  sapwood,  at  the  end  of  which  gallery  it  undergoes  its 
transformation.  These  passages  never  cross  each  other, 
but  are  of  singular  and  irregular  forms,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  characters  of  Arabic  writing.  These  searabese 
generally  seek,  at  first,  sickly  and  unsound  trees,  but 
soon  leave  them  for  the  healthy,  and  being  so  numerous, 
are  hard  to  be  dislodged  from  their  harboring  places. 
They  puncture  the  bark  and  alburnum  so  severely,  that 
the  sap  can  not  rise,  and  thus,  deprived  of  nourishment, 
the  tree  dies,  but,  nevertheless,  if  felled  in  time,  the 
wood  can  be  used.  There  are  several  relative  species 
found  on  other  trees. 

The  Fir  Moth  (hylesinus  piniperda),  plate  22,  fig.  2, 
is  two  lines  in  length  with  a  rather  long  body,  sloping 
towards  the  posterior  portion  ;  yellowish-brown  or  black, 
or  else  black,  with  reddish-brown  elytra.  This  species 
infest  the  wood  of  the  fir,  whether  in  the  living  tree  or 
felled  timber,  eating  their  way  into  it  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  above  described,  and  are  quite  as  hurtful. 

The  Common  Borer  (ptinus  fur)  is  rather  more  than 
the  tenth  of  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  small  head,  pro- 
truding eyes,  and  long  feelers.  The  body  is  hairy,  color 
reddish-brown,  with  two  small  bands ;  on  the  corselet 
are  two  knobs.  This  beetle  is  the  pest  of  museums  and 


INSECTA.  100 

collections  of  plants,  which  it  entirely  destroys.  Nothing 
but  strong  poison  will  arrest  it  in  its  ravaging  course  ;  it 
is  often  brought  into  a  cabinet  or  museum  in  cork  wood, 
therefore  it  is  necessary  that  this  wood  should  be  boiled 
previous  to  being  admitted  into  the  cabinet. 

The  Domestic  Beetle  or  Deathwatch  (anobium  per- 
tinax),  plate  22,  fig.  5,  is  two  lines  long ;  pale  dark 
brown,  with  long  feelers,  and  short  hairs  under  the  ab- 
domen, dwells  in  old  wood,  and  as  it  gnaws  its  way 
through  it,  makes  a  noise  like  the  ticking  of  a  watch, 
from  it  has  received  its  name ;  and  the  superstitious, 
hearing  this  sound,  regard  it  as  a  herald  of  death.  Oil 
being  caught,  this  insect  feigns  itself  to  be  dead,  and  is 
so  obstinate,  that  it  will  suffer  itself  to  be  roasted  alive, 
rather  than  show  signs  of  life. 

The  Smith  or  Jumping  Beetle  (elater  pectinicornis), 
is  known  by  the  term  of  Skipjack,  and  over  half  an 
inch  in  length  ;  brilliant  green  with  black  feelers.  The 
head  is  small  and  retreating ;  the  feet  so  short,  that  if 
the  creature  falls  on  its  back,  it  Can  not  turn  by  the 
ordinary  effort,  but  springs  perpendicularly  into  the  air, 
so  as  to  recover  the  natural  position  ;  this  is  effected  by 
applying  the  feet  to  the  outside  of  the  body,  which  has 
particular  impressions  for  their  reception,  depressing  the 
head  and  thorax  and  the  point  of  the  post-sternum  against 
the  sides  of  the  medio-sternum*  with  a  jerk,  the  body  is 
by  its  elasticity  elevated  into  the  air.  It  lives  in  mold- 
ering  wood,  and  is  altogether  harmless.  There  are  many 


*  The  thorax  is  the  middle  portion  of  the  body.  The  middle  line 
of  the  inferior  surface  of  the  trunk  is  termed  the  sternum,  and  is 
divided  into  three  parts  :  the  ante-sternum,  medio- sternum,  and  post- 
sternum. RuSClfENBUEGEE. 


110  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

relative  species,  one  of  which,  found  in  the  West  Indies, 
diffuses  a  brilliant  light. 

The  Richard*  (buprestis  chrysostigma),  plate  22,  fig. 
7,  is  classed  among  the  handsomest  beetles.  The  body  is 
very  cylindrical,  the  head  round  and  received  within  the 
thorax,  the  antennae  short ;  the  length  is  about  five  lines, 
reddish-brown  above,  golden-green  below,  under  surface 
and  wings  red,  the  latter  bordered  with  purple,  the  pos- 
terior portion  of  the  body  violet.  They  are  found  in 
oak  forests.  When  menaced  with  danger,  they  contract 
their  antennae  and  legs,  and  drop  upon  the  ground,  with 
a  view,  no  doubt,  to  conceal  themselves  in  the  adjacent 
herbage.  The  smaller  buprestides  are  found  on  willows, 
hazel  bushes,  etc.  The  largest,  which  are  natives  of 
South  America,  are  extremely  beautiful,  and  present  a 
brilliant  surface,  glittering,  as  it  were,  with  an  iridescent 
luster,  resembling  that  of  jewels. 

The  Common  Carpenter  Worm  (lamia  sedilis)  is  half 
an  inch  long,  with  antennae  five  times  the  length  of  the 
body.  The  color  is  brownish-gray,  with  paler  bands,  and 
four  spots  of  foul  yellow  on  the  corselet.  It  is  without 
wings,  and  lays  its  eggs  in  pine  wood  prepared  for  the 
carpenter,  in  which  the  larva  forms  such  deep  burrows 
as  frequently  to  render  it  altogether  useless. 

The  Longarmed  Carpenter  Beetle^  (lamia  longimana), 
one  of  the  largest  of  the  lamiariae,  is  three  inches  long, 
clear  olive  color,  marked  with  lines  of  black,  light  brown, 
and  flame  color.  The  segments  of  the  antennae  are  very 


*  So  called  on  account  of  the  extreme  richness  of  their  external 
covering.  It  is  stated  that  there  are  not  less  than  five  hundred  spe- 
cies of  the  genus  Buprestis  in  the  Berlin  Museum. — Tr. 

f  By  some  called  the  Carpenter's  Jack. 


INSECTA.  Ill 

long,  and  the  fore  legs  twice  as  long  as  the  -whole  body. 
It  is  found  in  South  America. 

The  Musk  Beetle  (cerambyx  moschatus),  plate  22, 
fig.  9,  is  of  a  shining  green,  exceeds  an  inch  in  length, 
and  its  presence  is  often  betrayed  by  its  peculiar  scent, 
•which  somewhat  resembles  that  of  a  mixture  of  musk 
and  roses.  The  antennae  are  divided  into  segments,  and 
of  such  extreme  length  as  to  form  a  distinguishing  pecu- 
liarity of  the  genera.  This  species  mostly  live  in  the 
decayed  trunks  of  willows. 

The  Oak  Beetle  (cerambyx  heros)  is  nearly  two  inches 
in  length,  entirely  black,  except  at  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  body,  where  it  is  dashed  with  reddish-brown.  The 
larvae,  measuring  four  inches,  live  in  oak  wood,  where 
they  commit  great  ravages. 

The  Common  Sawyer  (prionus  serrarius)  is  more 
than  a  half  inch  long ;  black,  with  elytra  or  wing-covers 
of  reddish-brown ;  the  antennae  are  very  long ;  the  body 
broad;  the  legs  are  also  brown,  and  serrated.  In  the 
larvae  state  it  lives  in  the  rotten  trunks  of  oaks  and 
pines. 

II. — CARNIVOROUS  BEETLES. 

Beetles  which  live  on  flesh  have  the  body  long  and 
flat,  the  feelers  short,  maxillae  large  and  pointed;  the 
legs  are  mostly  composed  of  five  joints  without  barbs, 
and  live  on  the  flesh  of  living  or  dead  animals.  They 
are  divided  into  three  families  :  Voracious  Beetles,  Par- 
asites, and  Carrion  Beetles, 


112  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

1. — VORACIOUS   BEETLES. 

Their  bodies  are  long  and  flat ;  the  wing  covers  crus- 
taceous ;  the  head  is  broad,  with  protruding  jaws  and 
thread-like  antennae ;  the  legs  or  tarsi  are  mostly  five- 
jointed. 

The  Red-footed  Beetle  (tachinus  rufipes)*  is  about 
a  line  in  length,  black ;  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
body  hairy ;  feet  and  anterior  of  a  brown-red.  Found 
in  decayed  mushrooms. 

The  Club  Bearer  (claviger  testaceus)  is  a  small  in- 
sect, three  fourths  of  a  line  in  length ;  light  brown. 
These  little  creatures  are  always  found  in  anthills, 
where  they  live  in  great  amity  with  the  busy  little 
emmets,  which  cherish  these  minute  creatures  tender- 
ly. The  reason  of  this  friendship,  it  is  said,  is,  that  a 
certain  juice  exudes  from  their  small  and  hirsute  bodies 
on  which  the  ants  feed. 

The  Black  or  Rove  Beetle  (staphylinus  olens),  plate 
22,  fig.  4,  is  one  inch  long,  three  tenths  of  an  inch 
broad;  black,  with  brown  wings,  and  is  found  every- 
where ;  in  manured  fields,  wherever  there  is  ordure,  or 
upon  decaying  animal  substances ;  it  is  very  bold,  and 
seizes  iipon  everything  that  comes  in  its  way. 

The  Bombardier  (brachinus  crepitans),  one  inch  long, 
three  lines  broad;  the  posterior  portion  of  the  body 
rather  square  than  round ;  of  a  fulvous  orange ;  the 
third  and  fourth  joints  are  black ;  the  elytra  blue-black 
or  green.  It  is  found  under  stones,  and  receives  its 
name  from  its  explosive  powers,  for,  if  held  between  the 
fingers,  it  ejects  a  caustic  fluid  secreted  by  organs  within 

*  Or  Mushroom  Beetle. 


INSECTA.  113 

the  abdomen.  This  is  their  only  means  of  defense,  and, 
escaping  with  a  noise,  the  creature  makes  use  of  it  to 
alarm  and  drive  off  its  enemies. 

The  Hessian  Fly  Root  Beetle  (zabrus  gibbus)  is  one 
inch  long  ;  flat  and  brown ;  the  larvae  are  very  injurious 
to  fields ;  they  begin  the  work  of  devastation  in  autumn, 
and  eat  the  roots  of  winter  grain.  The  following  sum- 
mer the  beetles  feast  on  what  the  grubs  have  left,  saga- 
ciously keeping  under  clods  in  the  daytime,  but  at  night 
climbing  on  the  stalk,  they  devour  all  before  them,  and 
thus  ruin  the  harvest. 

The  Golden  or  Dor  Beetle  (carabus  auratus)  is  ob- 
long, with  arched  or  convex  wings ;  as  these  are  elytra 
only,  and  not  genuine  wings,  it  does  not  fly ;  the  mandi- 
bles are  strong ;  its  length  is  one  inch,  breadth  three 
lines ;  its  color  is  brilliant  green,  something  resembling 
polished  copper,  hence  its  name.  It  is  found  under 
stones,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  dunghills,  and  is  the 
most  inveterate  foe  of  the  maybugs,  pursuing  and  devour- 
ing them  without  mercy. 

The  Ground  Beetle  (carabus  coriaceus)  is  one  of  the 
largest  found  in  Europe;  its  length  is  more  than  an 
inch,  its  color  dull  black. 

The  Little  Caterpillar  Hunter  (carabus  inquisitor) 
is  eight  lines  long,  winged ;  its  color  is  a  beautiful  cop- 
pery green,  resembling  verd  antique.  The  posterior 
portion  of  the  body  is  angular.  It  is  rather  rare,  and 
feeds  on  caterpillars,  going  out  to  hunt  them  in  the 
morning  and  evening. 

The  Larger  Hunting  Beetle  (carabus  sycophanta), 
plate  17,  fig.  6,  measures  more  than  an  inch ;  its  color 
is  a  dark  violet,  but  on  the  abdomen  and  wing-cases 
golden-green  or  brilliant  copper ;  it  goes  after  all  cater- 


114  NATUKAL   HISTORY. 

pillars,  but  seeks  principally  those  of  the  processionea, 
which  are  found  on  the  oak  trees. 

The  Tiger  or  Sand  Beetle  (cincindela  campestris). 
The  abdomen  is  oval  and  flat,  the  elytra  flat,  the  head 
thick ;  it  is  six  lines  long,  and  two  and  a  half  broad ; 
blue  above,  golden-green  below,  and  each  wing-case 
ornamented  with  six  white  spots.  These  beautiful  insects 
are  met  with  everywhere  on  sandy  banks,  either  flying 
or  moving  about  with  great  activity,  and,  sparkling  in 
the  sunbeams,  appear  like  flying  gems.  Very  ferocious, 
and  a  deadly  enemy  to  other  insects,  they  receive  their 
name  from  the  inveterate  pursuit  they  maintain  against 
them.  Their  soft  white  larvse  bury  themselves  in  the 
sand,  keeping  only  their  heads  above  it,  and  maintain  a 
steady  watch  for  the  approach  of  prey.  There  are  other 
varieties,  some  of  which  are  red,  others  black. 

The  Water  Flea  (gyrinus  natator),  sometimes  called 
Whirlwigs,  are  barely  two  and  a  half  lines  long ;  of  a 
brilliant  black,  with  yellow  feet,  they  are  frequently 
seen  in  spring  time  on  the  surface  of  quiet  waters,  over 
which  they  swim  or  glide  with  extreme  agility. 

The  Water  Beetle  (dytiscus  latissimus),  plate  22,  fig. 
15,  is  nearly  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  about  one  inch 
broad;  dark  brown  above,  head,  neck,  and  elytra  bor- 
dered with  black;  the  posterior  pair  of  feet  are  fur- 
nished with  strong  hairs,  which  aid  them  in  swimming, 
and  in  the  males  the  first  pair  of  anterior  tarsi  are  cov- 
ered with  small  bodies,  like  suckers,  by  which  they  hold 
fast.  They  are  very  voracious,  and  feed  on  all  the  small 
animals  that  are  usually  found  in  water,  whether  living 
or  dead.  If  taken  out  of  the  pond,  which  is  not  easily 
done,  being  hard  to  catch,  they  discharge  a  drop  of 
white  fluid,  which  emits  a  very  disagreeable  odor.  They 


INSECTA.  115 

fly  by  night  from  one  pool  to  another,  and  feed  ravenously 
on  putrid  substances. 

The  Great  Swimmer  (hydrophilus  piceus)  is  more 
than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  of  shining  black;  the 
forelegs,  mandibles,  and  feelers,  which  are  knobbed,  are 
brown.  These  beetles  swim  and  dive  with  great  dexter- 
ity, fly  well,  but  run  badly.  The  female  has,  under  the 
abdomen,  two  spinnerets,  with  which  she  fashions  a  cell  or 
case  for  her  eggs ;  with  this  provision  her  care  is  ended, 
for,  safely  hidden  within  their  silken  boat,  they  float 
lightly  over  the  smooth  or  stagnant  waters  which  they 
inhabit  until  the  time  that  nature  calls  them  forth. 


2. — PARASITE  BEETLES. 

The  Malacodermi  or  Soft-winged  beetles  have  mostly 
cylindrical  bodies,  with  long,  slender,  and  soft  elytra ; 
the  head  is  round,  and  nearly  hidden  within  the  thorax  ; 
the  antennae  are  short  and  simple.  In  the  larvae  state 
they  live  in  common  with  the  greater  part  of  mites — as 
parasites,  on  other  insects — as  beetles  feed  on  leaves  and 
buds,  which  serve  them  for  food. 

The  Glow  Worm  (lampyris  noctiluca)  is  long  and 
flat;  the  female  has  no  wings,  and  is  therefore  called 
Glow  or  Light  Worm.  These  beetles  fly  about  the  fields 
and  orchards  at  night,  giving  forth  a  phosphorescent 
luster;  the  female  lies  in  the  grass,  and  illumines  the 
space  around  her.  The  male,  scarcely  four  lines  long, 
and  brownish,  is  seldom  seen  flying,  and  his  light,  that 
he  does  not  liberally  dispense,  is  not  clear.  The  female 
is  half  an  inch  long,  flat,  and  consisting  of  a  number  of 
rings,  resembles  the  common  cellar  worms ;  has  six  feet, 
but  neither  wings  nor  elytra,  and  is  sometimes  called 


116  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

St.  John's  Worm.  The  light  issues  from  the  abdo- 
men, and  the  animal  can  vary  its  intensity  at  pleasure. 
By  day  these  insects  bury  themselves  in  the  grass,  but, 
creeping  forth  at  night,  they  emit  a  shining  light  which 
distinguishes  them  from  all  others  of  the  beetle  race. 

The  Lesser  Glow  Worm  (lampyris  splendidula)  is 
about  four  lines  in  length  :  dark  brown,  with  two  pale 
but  transparent  spots  on  the  thorax ;  the  legs  are  yellow. 
The  female  has  short  wings,  is  whitish  rather  than  brown, 
and  in  length  about  five  lines.  The  luminous  matter 
occupies  the  under  side  of  the  two  or  three  terminal  seg- 
ments of  the  abdomen,  and  is  more  brilliant  than  that 
of  the  lampyrus  noctiluca.  The  light  of  the  male  is 
also  stronger,  and  as  these  insects  are  seen  flying  about 
in  the  warm  summer  nights  by  hundreds,  they  present  a 
natural  and  beautiful  illumination  comparable  to  number- 
less little  moving  stars.  In  Northern  Europe  this  species 
of  lampyris  is  more  common  than  the  fire- fly,  which  in- 
habits only  warm  climates.  There  is  a  race  of  lampirii 
found  in  Italy,  where  the  males  are  winged  as  well  as  the 
females. 

The  Raspberry  Bug  (dasytes  niger).  Two  lines  in 
length ;  black,  and  covered  with  hair.  The  larvae  are 
often  met  with  in  raspberries. 

The  Bee  Wolf  (trichodes  apiarius),  half  an  inch  long, 
is  hirsute,  black,  and  blue ;  the  elytra  adorned  with  three 
red  bands.  These  beetles  live  on  flowers,  but  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  nests  of  bees.  The  larvas  feed  upon  those 
of  the  bees,  and  thus  do  much  damage  in  the  hives. 

The  Lady  Bug  (pyrochroa  coccinea).  is  from  five  to 
six  lines  in  length ;  black,  with  the  antennae  terminated 
by  a  compressed  mass,  composed  of  the  terminal  joints, 
forming  a  reversed  conical  club ;  the  elytra  and  thorax 


INSECTA.  117 

of  a  brilliant  scarlet  color.     Is  found  in  the  flowers  of 
blooming  hedges. 

The  Cantharides  or  Spanish  Flies  (lytta  vesicatoria), 
plate  22,  fig.  13,  are  ten  lines  long ;  altogether  of  a  bril- 
liant golden-green  color,  with  black  antennae.  Inhabit 
the  south  of  Europe,  where  they  are  found  so  abundantly 
on  the  bushes  of  the  elder,  lilac,  and  ash,  that  they  are 
gathered  by  the  bushel.  In  more  northern  climates 
(Germany)  they  appear  about  the  time  of  the  summer 
solstice.  Their  presence  is  betrayed  by  a  most  peculiar 
and  penetrating  odor,  emitted  from  their  bodies,  and 
they  consume  the  leaves  of  the  young  trees  so  closely  as 
to  leave  them  altogether  bare,  thus  causing  great  ravages. 
These  little  insects  contain  a  peculiar  irritating  matter, 
which,  when  applied  to  the  skin,  has  the  property  of 
producing  a  blister,  and  are  therefore  considered  valuable 
on  account  of  their  great  utility  in  medicine. 
•  The  May  Bug  (meloe  proscarabeus),  plate  22,  fig.  8, 
has  a  thick,  cylindrical  body ;  more  than  an  inch  long  ; 
of  a  dark  violet  color,  with  a  golden  luster.  Is  found, 
mostly  in  the  mornings,  on  banks  or  ridges  where  violets 
and  the  plant  called  the  lion's-tooth  grow,  on  the  leaves 
of  which  it  feeds.  The  larvae  subsist  on  flies.  These 
insects  also  possess  the  vesicating  property,  although  in 
less  degree  than  the  Spanish  fly,  and  are  used  for  the 
same  purpose. 

3. — CARRION  BEETLES. 

These  beetles  are  nearly  round,  and  mostly  ha.ve  on 
their  bodies  small  channels,  into  which  they  can  contract 
their  limbs.  Most  of  this  tribe  live  on  carcasses,  or 
other  putrid  matter. 


118  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  Cabinet  Beetle  (anthrenus  museorum),  plate  22, 
fig.  1,  is  about  one  tenth  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  dark 
color,  but  altogether  covered  with  scales  of  a  whitish- 
gray,  which  changes  in  the  elytra  to  bands  of  reddish 
brown.  These  scales,  like  the  hairs  on  the  wings  of  but- 
terflies, are  easily  abraded.  They  are  found  in  museums 
or  collections  of  insects,  where  they  are  very  injurious. 
Their  larvae  are  brown,  and  can  eat  their  way  through 
horn  or  wood. 

The  Bacon  Beetle  (dermestes  lardarius)  is  small  and 
oval ;  about  four  lines  long ;  of  a  pale  black,  with 
transverse  bands  of  gray  on  the  wing-covers.  These 
insects  feed  upon  the  skin  and  flesh  of  animals,  and  are 
found  in  bacon  or  other  smoked  meats,  and  even  make 
their  way  in  cabinets  of  stuffed  birds  or  animals,  where 
they  commit  great  ravages.  If  touched  they  feign  them- 
selves dead.  A  smaller  species  is  the  Fur  Moth,  which 
is  considered  a  terrible  scourge  to  the  furrier  and  collector 
of  dried  insects.  Nothing  but  extreme  cleanliness  can 
arrest  their  depredations.  Oil  of  turpentine,  mercury, 
and  all  other  detergents  of  the  same  kind,  have  hitherto 
proved  ineffectual  to  extirpate  the  injurious  insects. 

The  Lady  Bird  or  Lady  Cow  (coccinella  septem- 
punctata),  is  a  very  small,  pretty  beetle,  about  three  lines 
long,  with  the  elytra  red,  but  having  seven  black  dots, 
three  on  each  wing  and  one  in  the  middle.  These  pretty 
insects  are  very  useful,  as  both  in  the  perfect  insect  and 
larvae  state  they  feed  upon  plant  lice,  or  Aphidee,  and 
destroy  them  in  great  numbers. 

The  Black  Leaf  Lion  (coccinella  morio)  resembles 
the  'lady  bird,  except  that  the  body  is  black,  spotted  with 
red.  Its  larvaa,  which  wages  a  murderous  warfare  with 
the  aphides,  is  the  white  caterpillar  so  often  seen,  and  is 


IXSECTA.  119 

clothed  with  silky  white  bristles,  that,  like  the  prickles 
of  the  hedge  hog.  stand  up  erect.  These,  formed  by  a 
peculiar  secretion,  which  exudes  from  the  body,  are  easily 
removed,  for  if  the  creature  is  only  touched,  they  adhere 
to  the  finger,  but  if  the  larvae  is  entirely  bared,  it  sus- 
tains no  injury,  as  they  are  rapidly  replaced. 

The  Turnip  Fly  (nitidula  senea)  is  a  line  in  length, 
of  a  dark  metallic  green,  the  under  surface  black.  It 
does  great  injury  to  turnips.  This  species  is  also  found 
in  flowers,  appearing  with  the  germinating  bud,  and 
remaining  until  the  blossoms  fall  off.  If  disturbed  in 
cloudy  weather,  they  suffer  themselves  to  drop  to  the 
ground,  but  at  any  attempt  to  dislodge  them  in  sunshine, 
they  fly  away.  The  habitations  of  these  insects  vary 
according  to  the  species,,  and  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to 
extirpate  them  from  the  places  where  they  once  settle,  as 
they  are  certain  to  appear  there  every  year.  The  turnip 
fly  will  devastate  whole  fields,  and  the  only  remedy 
against  such  depradations  is  found  in  the  change  of  hus- 
bandry or  the  strength  of  the  plants. 

The  Sexton  or  Burying  Beetle  (necrophorus  vespillo), 
plate  22,  fig.  3,  is  from  two-thirds  to  seven-eighths  of  an 
inch  long,  and  four  in  breadth ;  black,  with  two  orange- 
colored  transverse  bands.  It  creeps  and  flies  with  great 
rapidity.  When  a  dead  mouse,  etc.,  is  discovered  in 
their  neighborhood,  these  insects  come  in  parties  of  a 
half  dozen,  and  running  round 'it,  some  seem  to  be  meas- 
uring the  carcass,  while  others  are  busily  rooting  in  the 
earth  to  find  out  what  impediment,  such  as  stones,  etc., 
may  be  in  the  way.  Having  found  a  place  that  offers  no 
obstruction,  they  creep  under  the  carcass,  and  with  their 
united  force  drag  it  thence.  They  next  dig  away  the 
earth  from  beneath  the  dead  animal  until  the  hole  is  suf- 


120  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ficiently  deep  to  receive  it,  accomplishing  the  work  so 
rapidly  that  in  three  hours  it  is  entirely  buried  out  of 
sight,  having  first  deposited  their  eggs  within  the  car- 
cass, .which  is  to  serve  the  larvae  for  food. 


III. — MELASOMA. — MOLD  EATERS. 

These  insects  have  mostly  an  oval  body  with  acute 
corners,  nearly  covered  with  hard  elytra,  a  large  thorax 
and  small  head,  with  the  mandibles  notched  and  the 
antennae  thickened  at  the  tip  ;  the  teeth  are  thick,  large, 
and  mostly  toothed.  They  live  on  decayed  vegetable 
matter,  manure,  rotten  wood,  etc.,  in  which  they  lay 
their  eggs ;  some  also  feed  on  leaves  and  buds.  They 
are  divided  into  three  families,  namely,  Mushroom,  Wood, 
and  Ground  Beetles. 

1. — FUNGICOLA. — MUSHROOM  BEETLES. 

Are  mostly  small  beetles,  with  tarsi  of  three  or  four 
joints,  short  antennae,  and  live  in  damp  places. 

The  Dark-brown  Mold  Beetle  (lathridius  porcatus) 
is  nearly  a  line  in  length,  smooth  and  dark  brown,  anten- 
nae and  feet  also  brown ;  on  each  elytra  are  eight  small 
stripes.  These  insects  live  on  vegetables  or  other  sub- 
stances in  damp  cellars,  where  they  can  feast  on  the 
white  mold  that  collects  in  quantity  in  such  places, 
keeping  always  on  the  lower  surface  of  the  article  they 
are  preying  upon;  therefore  they  often  fall  upon  their 
backs,  from  which  position  they  have  some  difficulty  in 
recovering  on  account  of  their  short  legs. 

The  Common  Mushroom  Beetle  (scaphidium  agarici- 
num)  is  oval,  and  scarcely  a  line  in  length,  shining  black, 


IXSECTA.  121 

with  pale  brown  antennse  and  legs.  The  elytra  are  some- 
what short.  These  insects  come  in  autumn,  and  are  found 
in  great  numbers  on  decaying  fungi.  They  run  with  great 
activity. 

2. — INSECTS   LIVING  IN  BOLETI  OR  ROTTEN  WOOD, 

Are  of  an  oblong  form,  with  the  thorax  nearly  square ; 
the  head  is  capable  of  being  withdrawn,  the  antennae 
granulous,  on  the  two  fore  feet  are  five,  on  the  hind  four 
joints.  They  feed  on  farinaceous  matter,  viz.,  meal,  the 
dust  of  fungi,  or  decayed  wood. 

The  Tenebrio  (helops  ater)  is  three  lines  long,  and 
dotted  with  black,  antennae  (feelers)  and  legs  brown ; 
found  in  the  decayed  trunks  of  old  willows.  Its  larvae 
closely  resembles  those  of  the  meal  worm. 

The  Meal  Bug  (tenebrio  molitor)  is  oblong,  measuring 
about  seven-tenths  of  an  inch,  chestnut-brown  on  the 
under  surface,  but  dark  and  shining  on  the  back ;  fre- 
quently found  in  mills  and  bake-houses,  where  its  larvae 
are  known  by  the  name  of  meal  worms.  It  is  scarcely 
possible  to  get  rid  of  these  troublesome  insects  -when  once 
harbored,  for  the  larva  will  gnaw  its  way  through  wood 
and  hide  in  the  meal  chests.  As  the  meal  worms  are 
dainty  food  for  nightingales  and  other  insectivora  race, 
kept  as  parlor  birds,  they  are  preserved  in  the  following 
manner  :  A  wooden  box,  or  rather  a  large  earthen  pot 
— since  the  larvae  will  eat  their  way  through  wood — is 
selected,  the  bottom  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  bran, 
above  this  is  a  woolen  cloth,  and  so  on  until  the  mass  is 
as  high  as  requisite.  In  the  month  of  May  the  worms' 
and  beetles  are  placed  in  these  vessels  ;  a  hole  is  made 
in  the  uppermost  layer,  through  which  two  tablespoon- 
6 


122  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

fuls  of  water  are  poured ;  this  is  repeated  as  often  as  the 
composition  becomes  dry.  It  is  kept  damp  but  not  wet, 
as  too  much  moisture  would  kill  the  worms,  the  pot 
placed  in  a  moderately  warm  spot,  and  disturbed  as 
little  as  possible. 

3. — GROUND  BEETLES. 

These  are  mostly  large,  with  arched  oval  bodies  ;  the 
head  is  broad,  the  thorax  elongated,  thighs  broad  and  ser- 
rated ;  the  tarsi  are  five-jointed,  and  the  wings  lammel- 
ate.  They  are  fitted  with  hard  skins  and  feet,  suitable 
for  digging,  lay  their  eggs  in  manure  or  mold,  on  which 
the  larvae  subsist  for  a  long  time  before  their  transforma- 
tion ;  some,  however,  feed  on  leaves  and  flowers. 

The  Pencil  (trichius  nobilis)  resembles  the  gold  bug, 
but  is  smaller  and  more  globular.  This  beetle  lives  in 
umbelliferous  plants,  the  larvae  in  the  fungi  or  decayed 
portions  of  plum  trees.  In  April  they  enclose  themselves 
in  a  ball  made  of  earth  and  rotten  wood,  from  whence, 
in  the  space  of  four  weeks,  they  come  out  as  a  perfected 
insect. 

The  Gold  Buy  (cetonia  aurata)  is  nearly  an  inch 
long,  of  a  brilliant  green  and  gold  color,  with  fine  white 
marks  on  the  elytra.  It  is  common  in  our  gardens, 
where,  found  on  roses,  it  is  called  the  rose  beetle.  It 
lays  its  eggs  in  hollows  of  trees,  principally,  however,  in 
places  where  wood  is  decaying.  The  larvae  are  often  met 
with  in  anthills.  The  larva  makes  for  itself  a  ball  of 
earth  and  decayed  wood,  cementing  it  together  with  an 
adhesive  substance  secreted  by  itself,  and  which  causes  it 
to  become  so  hard  that  it  can  only  be  opened  with  diffi- 
culty. Enclosed  within  this  structure  the  creature  under- 


INSECTA.  123 

goes  the  transforming  process  and  comes  forth  iu  May  or 
June  a  perfected  insect. 

•  The  May  Buy  (melolontha  vulgaris)  is  one  inch 
long,  black,  -with  brown  elytra,  the  tail  is  pointed  some- 
what in  the  form  of  a  beak.  In  many  the  thorax  is 
brown,  like  the  wing  cases.  These  insects  may  be  ob- 
served on  the  warm  evenings  in  May — some  years  in 
great  numbers — flying  round ;  their  motion  is  accompanied 
Avith  a  buzzing  noise.  They  are  therefore  very  injurious 
not  only  to  fruit  but  forest  trees,  which,  as  they  are  very 
voracious,  they  strip  entirely  of  verdure.  The  female, 
distinguished  by  her  smaller  feelers,  deposits  her  eggs  in 
the  earth,  from  which  a  grub  or  maggot  comes  forth ; 
these  grubs  may  be  found  under  stones  or  tufts  of  grass, 
in  fields  and  meadows,  often  new-turned  earth.  They 
have  a  white  body  and  red  head,  and  are  eagerly  sought 
after  by  young  anglers  and  birds.  They  live  on  the 
roots  of  plants  and  grass,  and,  committing  great  devasta- 
tion in  the  fields,  are  a  great  nuisance  to  the  farmer. 
The  best  way  to  get  rid  of  them  is  to  cherish  ground 
moles  and  insect-eating  birds.  Moles,  burrowing  in  the 
earth,  feed  upon  them  without  injuring  the  roots;  and' 
birds,  following  the  course  of  the  plow,  pick  them  up 
eagerly  as  soon  as  the  earth  is  turned  up.  There  is  a 
smaller  species,  called  by  the  Germans  Brachkafer,  that 
comes  in  June,  after  the  cockchafer  or  May  bug  has  dis- 
appeared. 

The  Sacred  Beetle*  (scarabeus  sacer)  is  about  the 
size  of  the  horse  beetle,  very  black  and  smooth,  the  head 
is  shield-shaped  and  finished  neatly  with  six  notches  in 
the  anterior  edge,  resembling  rays.  These  beetles  abound 

*  Also  termed  Pillularus. 


124  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

in  Egypt  and  countries  along  the  Mediterranean  ;  their 
eggs  are  deposited  in  manure  or  excrementitious  matters, 
•which  they  roll  into  a  ball  and  shove  along  -with  their 
hind  feet  and  seemingly  great  trouble  to  some  spot  •where 
it  can  be  buried  safely.  From  this  intense  care  in  pro- 
viding for  their  young,  or  perhaps  the  shining  rays  of 
their  brilliant-colored  heads,  they  were  -worshiped  by  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  and  their  representations  are  fonnd 
on  their  monuments.  In  those  early  days  they  vrere 
known  by  the  names  of  Cantharus  and  Scarabeus. 

The  Moonshaped  Dung  Beetle  (copris  lunaris)  is 
nine  lines  in  length  ;  black  and  glossy ;  thorax  and  ab- 
domen of  equal  measure ;  the  elytra  ridged  ;  the  head 
globular,  with  an  erect  horn  on  the  front.  The  males 
are  distinguished  from  the  females  by  the  superior  size  of 
this  appendage.  They  feed  on  dung,  are  found  in  sandy 
places,  under  which  they  make  holes,  where  they  deposit 
their  eggs. 

The  Horse  Beetle  (geotrupes  stercorarius),  nearly  as 
large  as  a  cockchafer,  it  is  of  a  lustrous  black  above, 
violet  below,  may  be  seen  in  evenings  flying  everywhere, 
but  is  more  especially  abundant  in  the  neighborhood  of 
manure  heaps.  When  touched,  the  cunning  insect 
stretches  forth  its  legs  and  feigns  itself  dead.  In  bad 
weather  it  seems  to  crawl  about  rather  than  fly.  The 
female  lays  her  eggs  singly  and  in  the  following  manner : 
She  makes  a  hole  in  the  earth,  which  she  lines  with 
manure ;  here  one  egg  only  is  deposited  and  covered  with 
the  same  material,  she  then  proceeds  to  dig  a  number  of 
others  intended  for  the  same  purpose.  Mites  are  fre- 
quently found  on  these  beetles. 

The  Bread  Beetle  (trogosida  caraboides)  is  three  and 
a  half  lines  in  length,  black,  brown  below  with  the  elytra 


IXSECTA.  125 

striated ;  lives  in  rotten  wood,  bread,  or  granaries,  -where 
their  larvae,  which  are  white,  leather-skinned,  and  spotted 
with  dark  points,  commit  great  devastation.  They  abound 
in  the  south  of  France,  where  they  are  known  under  the 
name  of  Cadelle. 

The  Stay  Beetle  (lucanus  cervus),  also  termed  Horned 
Beetle,  plate  22,  fig.  14.  The  males  have  very  large 
mandibles,  curved  and  toothed  like  stag  horns ;  those  of 
the  females  are  smaller,  from  which  they  receive  their 
name.  They  live  in  the  oak  forests,  are  most  numerous 
in  June  or  July,  and  are  considered  somewhat  formid- 
able, as  they  can  wound  severely  with  their  pincers.  By 
way  of  amusement,  they  are  harnessed  to  little  sleighs  or 
wagons  made  for  the  purpose,  Avhich  they  draw  easily 
with  their  horns.  Their  larvae  was  esteemed  a  dainty 
by  the  old  Romans.  When  ready  to  pass  through  their 
transformation,  they  make  a  cell  of  loam  or  clay,  which 
becomes  almost  as  hard  as  if  burned  in  a  pottery. 

The  Rhinoceros  Beetle  (oryctes  nasicorncs) ,  plate  22, 
fig.  12,  belongs  to  the  largest  order  of  European  beetles; 
is  more  than  twelve  lines  in  length ;  reddish-brown ;  has 
a  protruding  knob  on  the  thorax,  which,  in  the  males  is 
furnished  with  three  teeth.  The  head  is  surmounted  by 
a  long  horn,  measuring  from  three  to  four  lines,  that 
curves  backwards ;  the  females,  instead  of  this  cornuted 
appendage,  are  distinguished  by  a  knob  or  wart;  the 
under  portion  of  the  body  is  hairy.  The  eggs  are  depos- 
ited in  tan,  rotten  wood,  or  dung  heaps ;  the  larvae  un- 
dergo their  metamorphosis  in  a  large,  smooth  cave,  formed 
by  themselves  in  the  earth.  These  beetles,  which  are  by 
no  means  common,  appear  in  June  or  July. 

The  Hercules  (oryctes  hercules),  plate  22,  fig.  16,  is 
more  than  five  inches  long,  and  brownish-black ;  the 


126  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

head  small,  and,  in  the  males,  together  with  the  thorax, 
is  extended  into  a  long,  serrated  horn ;  that,  protruding 
from  the  latter  is  the  longer  of  the  two,  and  the  other  is 
suitably  fitted  to  meet  it.  The  elytra  of  the  males  are 
brownish-gray,  spotted  with  black;  the  antennae  are 
small,  eyes  yellow ;  the  border  of  the  body  hairy ;  found 
in  the  West  Indies. 

The  Acteon  (oryctes  actseon)  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  Hercules,  and  therefore  the  largest  of  the  Sca- 
rab&i ;  dark  brown,  abdomen  hairy,  and  feet  provided 
with  prickles.  On  the  head  is  a  long,  curved  horn, 
bending  outwards ;  two  smaller  are  found  protruding 
from  the  front  and  sides  of  the  thorax.  The  females 
have  tubercles  on  the  head  instead  of  horns,  and  the  tho- 
rax is  formed  of  folds  or  leaves. 


THIRD    ORDER. 
ORTIIOPTERA.— CRICKETS— BUGS— LOCUSTS. 

The  insects  belonging  to  this  order  do  not  all  undergo 
the  same  regular  metamorphosis  as  those  which  have 
already  been  described.  Those  which  rank  among  the 
transparent-winged,  pass  through  a  certain  change,  and 
have  the  wings  and  elytra  perfectly  developed  and  bright 
colored ;  others,  undergoing  a  partial  metamorphosis,  have 
them  imperfect,  and  in  some  they  are  found  wanting 
altogether. 

The  Ear-wig  (forficula  auricularia)  is  about  an  inch 
long;  light  brown,  the  elytra  are  very  short ;  the  true 
wings  are  long,  and  so  artistically  folded  together  that 
one  is  at  a  loss  to  conjecture  how  they  can  be  so  com- 
pletely concealed  under  those  small  win^-cases.  The 


INSECTA.  127 

abdomen  is  terminated  by  two  horny  appendages,  resem- 
bling pincers,  and  although  this  movable  apparatus  has 
given  rise  to  the  popular  opinion  that  by  them  the  insect 
insinuates  itself  into  the  ear,  it  is  not  to  be  credited,  for 
these  horns  are  only  raised  in  self-defense.  The  earwigs 
feed  on  fruit,  and  are  therefore  very  injurious  to  fruit 
trees. 

The  Cockroach  (blatta  orientalis)  is  flat ;  nearly  oval, 
and  has  the  head  hidden  behind  the  pro-thorax ;  the 
wing-cases  are  coriaceous,  and  cover  the  wings,  which, 
like  those  of  the  beetle,  are  folded  under  them.  These 
annoying  insects  are  originally  from  the  east;  their 
length  is  about  an  inch ;  in  color  a  chestnut-brown,  with 
reddish-brown  wings;  these  wings  are  peculiar  to  the 
male,  the  female  are  without.  They  remain  hidden 
during  the  day,  but  coming  forth  in  great  numbers  at 
night,  they  devour  all  kinds  of  provision.  Where  they 
are  once  settled,  it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  get  rid  of  them, 
and  they  are  considered  the  pests  of  the  kitchen.  There 
is  a  relative  species,  called  the  Surinam,  Kakerlac,  found 
in  the  "West  Indies,  that  constitute  a  real  plague  to 
families. 

The  Praying  Mantis  (mantis  religiosa),  plate  26, 
fig.  10,  derives  its  name  from  being  supposed  to  fold  its 
forefeet  and  elevate  them  in  the  position  commonly  given 
to  the  hands  in  prayer.  This  attitude  is,  however,  by  no 
means  devotional,  but  only  a  trap  to  catch  insects.  It  is 
two  inches  long ;  altogether  green,  and  on  this  account, 
as  well  as  having  large  wings,  has  sometimes  been  called 
the  Walking  Leaf.*  It  is  found  in  southern  Europe; 
as  soon  as  a  fly  approaches  this  insect,  it  elevates  the 

*  Leaf  Insect  (Foliaia),  which,  resembling  a  leaf  in  color  and  shape, 
may  easily  be  mistaken  for  one. 


123  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

fore  part  of  its  body  and  fore  legs,  attentively  watching 
the  prey  •  if,  however,  it  does  not  come  within  seizing 
distance,  it  creeps  slily  and  cat-like  towards  it.  and,  mak- 
ing a  sudden  spring,  secures  it.  A  relative  species,  but 
much  larger,  is  found  in  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

The  Mole  Cricket  (gryllus  gryllotalpa),  plate  26,  fig. 
9.  This  family  is  distinguished  by  having  the  fore  feet 
very  broad,  flat  and  toothed-like  hands,  proper  for  bur- 
rowing. The  hind  legs,  used  for  leaping,  are  not  very 
large.  They  measure  an  inch  and  a  half,  are  gray,  with 
brown  feet,  and  have  their  long  wings  placed  far  back  on 
the  body.  The  males  make  a  chirping  noise  by  rubbing 
their  wings  together,  like  the  grasshoper.  These  insects 
are  very  injurious  to  the  roots  of  plants  and  grass,  which 
they  feed  upon.  Their  presence  is  known  by  grass  plats 
turning  yellow  towards  autumn,  and  it  is  common  to 
trample  upon  those  spots  in  order  to  destroy  the  destruc- 
tive insects. 

The  Field  Cricket  (gryllus  campestris)  is  above  an 
inch  long,  black,  and  lives  mostly  in  meadows  where 
there  are  ridges  or  hillocks,  into  which  they  dig  holes ; 
peeping  out  from  these  retreats  while  they  sing.  Two 
crickets  meeting  attack  each  other  by  butting  with  the 
head,  like  goats ;  but  this  seldom  happens,  as  they  are 
timid,  and  rarely  go  far  from  their  holes.  Lizards  are 
their  greatest  enemies.  Their  clear,  shrill  note  is  well 
known.  They  feed  upon  all  kinds  of  roots  and  vege- 
tables, and  drink  the  dew  drops.  The  Domestic  Cricket 
which  is  less,  but  much  resembles  the  above  described, 
lives  in  the  homes  of  man.  where  it  does  great  damage, 
often  cutting  holes  in  articles  of  clothing,  or  getting  into 
flour. 

The  Tree  Locust  (locusta  viridissima)  is  two  inches 


IX3ECTA.  129 

long,  entirely  green,  with  large  legs  fitted  for  leaping ; 
long  wings,  and  the  posterior  portion  of  the  body  termi- 
nating in  an  ovipositor.  This  species  harhor  among 
trees  or  bushes,  keeping  up  a  continual  chirping,  and, 
sitting  quietly,  will  suffer  one  to  approach  closely,  but, 
when  the  intruder  believes  himself  certain  of  the  prize, 
the  little  creature  flies  off.  This  family,  known  by  the 
popular  name  of  the  Great  Green  Grasshopper,  is 
always  met  with  on  linden  trees.  Much  resembling  the 
green  locust,  but  smaller,  is 

The  Little  Green  Grasshopper;  nevertheless,  it  is  a 
fierce  little  insect,  and  bites  more  severely  than  the  for- 
mer. In  some  places  the  peasants  use  them  to  remove 
warts,  from  which  circumstance  they  receive  the  name  of 
Wart  Eaters. 

The  Migratory  Locust  (acridium  migratorium)  is  two 
inches  long,  grayish  brown,  spotted  with  black,  or  tinged 
with  green ;  their  true  home  is  in  Tartary.  They  are 
there  found  in  such  numbers  that  in  their  migratory 
flights  they  appear  in  the  distance  like  a  black  cloud, 
which,  gathering,  obscures  the  light  of  day.  From  time 
to  time  they  unite  themselves  in  troops  of  millions,  and 
keeping  on  a  certain  track,  can,  in  a  little  while  trans- 
form the  places  where  they  alight  into  an  arid  waste.  In 
Asia  and  Africa  this  and  other  similar  species  are  greater 
pests  than  in  Europe,  although  they  are  there  used  as  an 
article  of  food.  The  manner  of  preparing  them  is  to  tear 
off  the  wing-covers  and  feet,  and  then  bake  them  with 
butter ;  they  are  said  to  be  very  palatable,  and  taste  like 
crabs.  This  species  of  locust  is  believed  to  have  formed 
the  sustenance  of  St.  John  while  he  abode  in  the  desert. 

The  Bed  Bug  (cimex  lectularius)  is  flat,  without 
wings,  and  provided  with  a  straight  sucker  or  proboscis. 


130  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

These  pests  are  supposed  to  be  natives  of  southern 
regions,  and  brought  to  Europe,  most  likely,  in  timber ; 
be  this  as  it  may,  they  are  now  very  generally  spread 
everywhere.  They  measure  about  three  lines  in  length ; 
are  egg-shaped ;  the  head  very  small,  and  provided  with 
antennae  resembling  fine  bristles.  Their  skin  is  so  trans- 
parent that,  examined  through  a  magnifying  glass,  the 
interior  organs  can  be  distinctly  seen.  They  run  very 
rapidly.  Keeping  hid  in  the  daytime,  they  come  forth 
at  night,  and  fastening  on  the  sleeper,  prove  real 
scourges  by  their  stinging  and  sucking  his  blood  as  he 
slumbers ;  and  when  in  danger,  or  crushed,  they  exhale 
a  fetid  odor,  almost  unendurable.  When  filled  to  reple- 
tion their  color  is  a  reddish-brown,  but  when  empty,  are 
dark  gray.  Great  cleanliness  and  extreme  vigilance  are 
the  best  means  of  keeping  clear  of  these  noxious  insects. 
It  is  also  very  well  to  anoint  the  bedstead  with  corrosive 
sublimate  or  spikenard,  as  they  will  not  harbor  where 
these  articles  have  been  used. 

The  Half  Winged  Garden  Bug  (lygaeus  apterus)  is 
distinguished  by  having  only  elytra  and  not  wings ;  it  is 
a  small  bug,  four  tenths  of  an  inch  in  length ;  found  in 
gardens,  and  at  the  foot  of  trees,  and  is  of  a  handsome 
cinnamon  color,  dotted  with  black.  These  insects  pass 
the  winter  under  the  moss,  or  in  the  crevices  of  trees, 
coming  forth  in  the  summer.  They  are  not  attended  by 
an  unpleasant  odor  like  others  of  the  same  species ;  the 
sap  of  fallen  leaves  and  dead  insects  serve  them  for 
food. 

The  Berry  Bug  (cimex  baccarum)  is  nearly  half  an 
inch  long,  oval ;  the  wings  composed  of  something  resem- 
bling skin  and  parchment ;  of  a  gray  color,  with  yellow 
lines.  It  is  found,  mostly  in  the  latter  part  of  summer, 


IXSECTA.  131 

on  all  berries,  to  which  it  imparts  its  own  unpleasant 
odor. 

The  Wafer  Buys  (hydrometra  lacustris)  are  slender 
insects,  with  long  legs ;  bodies  scarcely  half  an  inch 
long ;  frequently  seen  skimming  on  the  surface  of  the 
water  during  the  summer.  The  color  is  black,  but  cov- 
ered with  a  silver  luster;  they  have  no  wings.  They 
feed  on  gnats  and  other  insects,  and  pass  the  winter  in 
the  mud  under  the  water.  When  crushed  they  emit  the 
same  disgusting  odor  as  the  bed  bug. 

The  Swimmer  (notonecta  glauca).  The  body  is  cylin- 
drical, and  measures  nearly  an  inch ;  yellow-gray ;  the 
upper  wings  are  spotted  on  the  borders  with  brown ;  the 
corselet  is  black ;  the  hind  feet  are  long  and  hairy.  These 
insects  may  be  seen  in  summer  time,  mostly  in  standing 
water,  where  they  swim  or  row  with  great  quickness,  and 
often  on  their  backs,  whence  their  generic  name.  They 
fly  up  out  of  the  water,  and  then  fall  back  again  with  a 
sudden  plunge,  as  if  a  stone  had  been  thrown  into  the 
pond.  As  they  sink  beneath  the  surface,  silver-glancing 
air  bubbles  may  be  observed  adhering  to  the  hairs  on  the 
posterior  portion  of  the  body ;  if  placed  upon  a  dry  spot, 
they  make  (as  crawling  on  a  level  is  painful)  all  possible 
efforts  to  reach  some  elevated  body,  in  order  to  spread 
their  wings  and  find  the  way  to  the  water.  They  have 
a  sharp  proboscis  with  which  they  can  prick  sharply,  and 
make  use  of  it  to  kill  the  water  insects  and  larvae  of  frogs, 
the  blood  of  which  serves  them  for  nourishment. 

The  Scorpion  Buy  (nepa  cinerea)  is  flat  and  oval ; 
the  head  small,  with  protruding  eyes,  the  abdomen  light 
red,  black  in  front ;  brown  on  the  posterior  portion  of 
the  body;  head,  breast,  feet,  and  fore  wings  ash  gray. 
The  fore  feet  are  large,  heavy,  and  forked ;  placed  far 


132  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

forward,  and  consist  of  five  joints,  of  which  the  third  is 
the  largest.  These  insects  are  lazy,  swim  and  creep 
slowly  on  the  bottoms  of  ponds  or  stagnant  waters,  occa- 
sionally grappling  on  the  roots  of  plants.  It  is  easy  to 
capture  them,  but  is  not  often  attempted,  as  their  sting 
is  severe  as  that  of  a  bee  ;  they  prey  upon  insects,  even 
those  of  their  own  race,  seizing  them  with  their  fore  feet 
and  wounding  them  with  their  sharp  proboscis,  suck  the 
blood  of  their  victims  most  greedily. 

The  Singing  Grasshopper  (cicada  plebea)*  on  the 
back  is  shining  brown,  dirty  yellow  below ;  the  breast- 
plate is  marked  with  a  red  cross ;  the  length  of  the  body 
exceeds  an  inch ;  the  head  is  short  and  thick,  the  wings 
transparent,  the  antennae  very  filamentous,  the  legs  of 
equal  length,  none  of  them  being  formed  for  leaping. 
The  males  have  a  kind  of  drum,  formed  of  two  oval  car- 
tilaginous plates ;  these,  placed  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  body,  near  each  other,  and  moved  by  muscular 
power,  strike  together,  and  produce  a  monotonous  and 
noisy  kind  of  music.  The  Cicadarice  are  pretty  little 
insects,  and  were  known  in  very  ancient  times,  doing  lit- 
tle injury  to  plants,  although  feeding  on  their  juices,  and 
are  generally  favorites  with  man,  on  account  of  their 
cheerful  and  continued  songs ;  the  most  are  natives  of 
southern  regions. 

The  Foamer  (cicada  spumaria),  about  the  size  of  a 
flea,  brown,  with  four  pairs  of  large  white  spots  on  the 
front  wings,  which,  however,  are  sometimes  rather  indis- 
tinct ;  the  head  is  broad,  rather  than  long,  only  on  the 
lower  surface  it  is  extended  into  a  proboscis  or  sucker. 
The  hind  legs  are  long  and  prickly ;  they  can  leap  over 

*  Called  Katydid  in  the  United  States.  The  French  call  them 
Chantcvses,  or  singers. — Tr. 


INSECTA.  133 

a  space  of  five  or  six  feet,  and  in  making  this  movement, 
produce  a  crackling  sound ;  in  the  month  of  September 
they  may  be  found  in  hedges  everywhere.  The  larvce 
of  these  cicada  are  of  a  yellow-green  color,  and  furnished 
with  six  feet ;  they  run  rapidly  and  leap  well ;  live  in 
companies  on  plants,  and  derive  their  nourishment  from 
the  sap,  which  they  suck.  They  draw  forth  more  of  the 
vegetable  juices  than  serves  them  for  food ;  the  rejected 
portion  assumes  the  appearance  of  froth  or  foam,  and  is 
often  accumulated  into  small  heaps,  from  which  hangs  a 
drop  of  clear,  honey-like  fluid,  vulgarly  termed  cuckoo- 
spittle.  In  the  larva  and  nympha  state  this  foam  serves 
them  for  a  receptacle  in  which  their  metamorphosis  is 
accomplished.  Various  species  of  cicadariae  are  found  in 
South  America,  uttering  constantly  their  monotonous 
sound,  which  resembles  the  sound  made  by  the  running 
down  of  a  clock. 

The  Surinam  Lantern  Bearer  (fulgora  laternaria). 
This  large  and  beautiful  specimen  of  the  genus  cicada  is 
three  inches  long ;  has  legs  formed  for  leaping,  and  wings 
resembling  those  of  the  locust;  on  the  front  of  the  head 
is  a  large  illuminous  globe,  of  a  membraneous  texture, 
called  the  lantern,  which,  in  the  night,  diffuses  so  strong 
a  phosphoric  light  that  persons  are  enabled  to  read  con- 
veniently by  the  aid  of  two  of  these  insects.  This  is  a 
popular  belief,  but  how  far  entitled  to  be  credited  is  not 
proved.  Its  color  is  olive-green,  variegated  in  the  form 
of  white  stripes  and  marks ;  the  lower  pair  of  wings  are 
decorated  by  large,  brown,  eye-shaped  spots;  it  is  a 
native  of  Surinam,  but  is  very  rare.  There  is  a  similar 
species  found  in  China. 

Equally  rare  is 

The  European  Lantern  Fly  (fulgora  Europaea),five 


134  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

lines  long,  one  in  thickness ;  altogether  green ;  the  wings 
long,  transparent,  and  veined  with  green ;  the  straight 
and  pointed  horn  on  the  forehead,  prolonged  into  a  muz- 
zle, has  three  ridges  above  and  five  below ;  the  abdomen 
is  large,  resembling  that  of  the  house-fly,  ending  in  a 
forked  point.  Found  in  the  south,  but  not  unfrequently 
as  far  north  as  Germany. 

The  Leaf  Louse  (aphis)  is  a  little  round  insect,  which 
is  sometimes  provided  with  wings  and  tubes,  which,  situ- 
ated in  the  posterior  part  of  the  body,  are  fitted  for  the 
reception  of  honey.  The  aphidse  are  more  sluggish  than  any 
others  of  the  Parasita,  and  are  found  by  thousands,  clus- 
tering on  the  juicy  stalks  of  different  plants,  which  they 
injure  by  piercing  the  twig  with  their  sharp  sting  and 
sucking  the  sap.  They  are  variously  colored,  some  are 
green,  some  brown,  others  black,  and  their  increase  is 
rapid  and  immense,  almost  beyond  belief.  It  is  remark- 
able that  the  males,  which  are  winged,  only  appear  in 
autumn.  The  females  form  the  large  societies  found 
clustering  together.  Some  produce  living  young,  others 
lay  eggs.  Their  increase  is  wonderful ;  one  individual, 
it  is  said,  will  produce  twenty  broods  in  one  summer, 
and  as  every  five  generations  number  six  millions,  it  may 
be  supposed  what  devastation  such  numbers  would  cause 
in  a  garden,  if  they  were  not  destroyed  by  other  insects. 
The  ants  pursue  and  feed  on  them  for  the  sake  of  the 
transparent  saccharine  fluid,  termed  honey  dew,  which 
exudes  from  their  bodies.  One  species,  which  lives  on 
pines,  by  puncturing  a  vulnerable  part,  produce  monstros- 
ities, having  the  appearance  of  galls,  within  which  both 
insect  and  larvae  dwell. 

The  Leaf  Fleas  (chermes),  called  also  by  the  French 
False  Plant  Lice,  are  very  small  insects,  resembling 


INSECT A.  135 

fleas,  which,  like  the  aphidii,  live  on  the  sap  of  leaves. 
Both  males  and  females  have  broad-plated  wings ;  the 
breast  plate  is  curved,  the  antennae  long,  the  feet  double- 
jointed.  The  hind  legs,  although  shorter  than  the  fore, 
are  arranged  for  leaping,  in  -which  movement  the  wings 
assist.  They  are  very  lively,  and  on  the  least  movement 
of  the  leaf  will  hop  off.  In  their  characteristic  usages 
they  are  like  other  insects,  passing  the  winter  in  the 
perfect  state,  and  depositing  their  eggs  in  April.  Many 
varieties  exist,  being  found  on  pear,  fig,  beech,  and  ash 
trees,  as  well  as  on  the  nettle  and  alder.  They  are, 
however,  less  numerous  than  the  plant  louse. 

The  Cochineal  (coccus  cacti)  are  small  insects,  not  un- 
like the  preceding,  about  the  size  of  a  large  pin-head  ; 
the  whole  body  is  filled  with  rose-colored  fluid.  They 
are  found  upon  the  species  of  cactus  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Indian  fig.  The  females  envelope  their  eggs  in 
a  kind  of  cottony  secretion,  which  serves  them  as  a  nest. 
The  males  are  provided  with  two  transparent  wings,  the 
females  are  without.  Their  true  home  is  in  Mexico, 
where  they  are  tenderly  cherished  and  carefully  pro- 
tected from  cold  and  wet.  The  celebrated  crimson  dye 
produced  by  them  is  highly  treasured,  being  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  the  riches  of  Mexico,  and  is  much  im- 
proved in  brilliancy  by  this  careful  tending  of  the  coccus. 
This  coloring  material  is  Aveil  known  to  every  one  by  the 
term  Carmine.  Several  crops  of  these  insects  are  gath- 
ered from  off  the  plants  in  a  year,  and  it  is  astonishing 
to  see  how  rapidly  they  increase.  The  manner  of  killing 
the  coccus  is  by  the  steam  of  boiling  water.  It  takes 
seventy  thousand  of  the  dried  insects  to  make  one  pound 
of  cochineal.  The  attempt  has  been  made  to  transplant 


136  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

them  into  Europe,  and  when  placed  in  conservatories, 
has  proved  successful. 

The  Kennes  (coccus  ilicis)  is  a  scale  insect,  and  lives 
on  a  kind  of  prickly  oak  found  in  the  south  of  Europe. 
The  males  have  white  wings,  the  females  are  without. 
These  insects  are,  in  March,  about  the  size  of  a  millet 
seed,  enveloped  in  a  kind  of  cottony  substance,  and 
resemble  a  small  plum  cut  in  half ;  by  April  they  have 
acquired  the  size  of  a  pea,  are  round,  and  instead  of  their 
cotton  covering,  are  clothed  with  a  thick  white  dust, 
which,  being  examined,  will  be  found  to  contain  perhaps 
two  thousand  pale  red  eggs,  each  one  about  the  size  of 
half  a  poppy  seed.  They  are  also  used  for  dyeing.  A 
similar  species  is  found  on  the  roots  of  plants  in  Poland, 
and  is  termed  the  Scarlet  Grain. 

The  Gum  Lac  (coccus  lacca)  is  also  found  among  the 
scale  insects  ; .  scarcely  as  large  as  a  common  louse  ;  the 
body  consists  of  twelve  rings,  is  oval,  nearly  flat,  and 
red,  with  a  ridge  along  the  back.  The  under  side  is 
smooth,  their  antennae  are  filiform  and  extended,  each 
dividing  into  two  or  three  fine  joints,  like  bristles.  The 
extremity  of  the  body  is  similarly  furnished  with  two  of 
the  same.  These  insects  live  on  the  sap  of  the  banana 
and  jujube  trees,  the  plaso  and  some  mimosas,  which  is 
milky  and  adhesive  ;  this  sap,  on  being  exposed,  becomes 
hard  like  lac,  and  so  strong  a  bird-lime  is  made  from  it 
by  the  natives,  that  peacocks  are  taken  with  it,  A  thick 
red-colored  fluid  exudes  from  the  bodies  of  these  insects, 
which  also  hardens  into  lac.  The  female  deposits  her 
eggs  within  this  mass  and  dies,  so  that  it  may  be  said  her 
own  body  serves  for  the  first  nourishment  of  her  young. 
They  are  found  in  immense  numbers  and  furnish  the 
well  known  gum-lac,  which,  partly  used  as  crimson  dye, 


INSECTA.  137 

partly  as  varnish,  is  found  encrusted  on  the  small  branches 
of  trees.  In  the  natural  state,  this  production  is  termed 
stock  lac  ;  separated  from  the  rougher  particles,  it  is 
seed  lac ;  these  particles  collected,  melted,  and  formed 
into  cakes,  is  lump-lac,  and,  when  again  transformed,  by 
further  preparation,  is  found  in  thin,  transparent  scales, 
called  shell-lac,  the  value  of  which  depends  on  its  greater 
or  lesser  transparency.  The  crust  of  gum-lac  found  on 
the  branches  is  half  a  line  in  thickness,  and  in  every  cell 
measuring  two  lines  in  length,  is  found  entombed  the 
crimson-hued  insect,  separated  from  which,  the  lac  is  as 
yellow  as  amber.  Whether  this  lac  is  the  overflowing 
of  sap  caused  by  the  punctures  of  the  coccus,  or  a  secre- 
tion exuded  by  their  own  bodies,  is  not  decided.  A  cer- 
tain tree  in  China,  producing  a  kind  of  wax  from  which 
tapers  are  manufactured,  is  the  home  of  a  particular  spe- 
cies of  coccos  which  causes  this  singular  exudation. 

We  now  close  the  description  of  this  remarkable  order, 
and  proceed  to  describe  some  of  the  most  important  of  the 

TRANSPARENT- WINGED  INSECTS. 

These  families  are  divided  into  two  families :  the 
Aquatic  and  Terrestrial.  To  the  latter  belong 

The  LibettulfB  (dragon-flies  or  adder- bolts),  distin- 
guished by  their  slender  bodies  and  gauze-like  wings, 
which  are  often  beautifully  colored  and  composed  of  a 
tracery  of  the  finest  net-work.  These  brilliant  insects 
may  be  always  seen  in  the  neighborhood  of  pools  and 
brooks,  flying  with  the  rapidity  of  lightning,  their  bright 
colors  glancing  in  the  sunlight,  in  pursuit  of  all  other 
insects,  as,  being  extremely  voracious,  they  are  unspar- 
ing of  their  victims.  Their  teeth  and  mandibles  are 


138  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

very  strong,  particularly  at  the  ends.  They  lay  their 
eggs  in  the  water,  where  both  larvae  and  numphae  remain 
for  many  months  before  their  perfect  development.  In 
the  first  two  states  and  living  in  the  water,  they  resemble 
the  perfect  insect,  except  that  they  have  six  feet  and  no 
wings.  They  change  early  into  pupae  ;  this  second  stage 
of  their  being  is  only  distinguished  from  the  first  by 
indications  of  the  rudiments  of  four  wings  and  a  larger 
growth.  Most  of  the  libellulse  are  of  a  brownish-green 
color ;  head,  breast,  and  abdomen  distinctly  separated ; 
they  swim  well  and  respire  water  by  means  of  a  lamellar 
appendage  at  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  body.  After 
remaining  ten  or  eleven  months  in  the  water,  the  pupa 
leaves  it  and  climbs  upon  a  plant,  where  it  awaits  its 
final  transformation.  After  remaining  motionless  for  a 
time,  the  skin  on  the  breast  begins  to  separate,  and  the 
perfect  insect  slowly  issues  from  its  envelope,  unfolds  its 
wings,  which  at  first  are  humid  and  soft,  to  be  dried  by 
the  air,  a  process  which  frequently  requires  two  hours 
for  its  completion.  The  different  species  of  dragon-flies 
can  not,  as  in  most  other  insects,  be  distinguished  by  the 
color.  The  race,  however,  is  divided  into  the  following 
families : 

1. —  The  Broad  Dragon  Fly,  with  round  head  and 
broad  hinder  body,  carrying  the  wings  horizontally  ex- 
tended. 

The  Common  Dragon  Fly  (libellula  vulgata),  yel- 
low-gray or  reddish  ;  wings  altogether  diaphanous,  body 
cylindrical. 

The  Yellow  Adder-bolt  (libellula  depressa).  The 
males  have  the  aklomen  spear-shaped,  and  of  a  fine 
blue  color.  In  the  females  the  sides  are  spotted,  and 


IXSECTA.  189 

the  breast  striped  with  yellow  ;  the  ground  work  of  the 
wings  is  brown. 

The  Golden  Green  (libellula  aena)  is  of  a  beautiful 
golden  green  color,  with  black  feet  and  colorless  wings  ; 
abdomen  club-shaped. 

2. — Long-bodied  Dragon  Flies,  with  round  heads 
and  very  long  cylindrical  bodies,  carrying  their  wings  as 
the  genus  described  above. 

The  Great  Dragon  Fly  (seschna  grandis),  plate  26, 
fig.  1,  is  two  and  a  half  inches  in  length,  spotted  orange 
and  green,  the  corselet  striped  with  yellow,  with  trans- 
parent wings. 

The  Black  Dragon  Fly— Devil's  Needle  (aeschna  for- 
cipata)  is  something  smaller ;  black  wings,  which  are 
yellow  below,  but  spotted  brown  on  the  borders. 

The  Ephemera  (ephemera)  have  the  limbs  five-jointed, 
the  eyes  close  together,  and  no  jaws,  like  the  libellulae  ; 
they  carry  their  wings  perpendicularly.  The  antennae 
are  short,  two  or  three  filaments  or  bristles  found  at  the 
posterior  extremity  of  the  body  very  long.  Their  larvae 
do  not  form  an  envelope  in  which  they  await  their  meta- 
morphosis, but  burrow  in  the  banks  of  streams,  and  feed 
on  the  mud.  They  have  large  branchiae  on  each  side  of 
the  abdomen,  through  which  they  respire.  The  most 
remarkable  is 

The  Ephemera  Proper  or  Shore  Fly  (ephemera 
swammerdammi),  which  has  a  body  more  than  an  inch 
long,  terminating  with  filaments  at  the  posterior  extrem- 
ity of  the  same  length.  These  insects  usually  appear 
in  great  swarms  on  the  bright  days  in  summer  along  the 
banks  of  rivers,  sometimes  for  two  or  three  days,  but  the 
duration  of  life  in  most,  as  their  name  denotes,  is  limited 
to  a  single  day.  Scarcely  have  the  larvae  quitted  the 


140  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

water,  than  they  cast  their  skins,  and  deposit  their  egg3 
in  a  gelatinous  mass,  resembling  two  balls  of  spawn. 
From  these  proceed  small  grubs,  which,  although  able  to 
swim  with  serpent-like  motion,  mostly  lie  hidden  in  gal- 
leries, varying  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length,  formed 
in  the  mud  of  the  shore,  which  also  serves  them  for 
nourishment.  When  they  have  attained  to  the  size  of  a 
small  finger,  they  pass  into  the  nympha  state,  and,  easily 
distinguished  by  the  rudimentary  wings,  are  used  as  bait 
by  the  fly  fishers  under  the  name  of  the  shore  worm  or 
gray  drake.  They  sometimes  remain  years  in  the  lame 
state  before  the  final  metamorphosis  is  completed. 

The  Wafer  Moths  (phrygsena)  have  long  antennae, 
tile-formed,  hairy  wings,  the  hinder  pair  mostly  folded 
longitudinally.  The  legs  are  five-jointed ;  they  have 
more  than  one  pair  of  eyes,  one  pair  of  which,  placed 
on  foot-stalks,  are  without  the  posterior  filaments ;  the 
mouth  is  too  minute  to  be  discernible.  .The  imago  pro- 
ceeds from  a  larva  which  respires  through  branchiae,  and 
forms  a  cell,  in  which  its  transformation  is  accomplished. 
The  caterpillar-like  larvre  are  very  numerous,  live  in  the 
water  ;  they  envelope  themselves  with  a  silky  covering, 
which  they  plaster  outside  with  all  kinds  of  material, 
which  gives  them  a  very  rough  and  singular  appearance, 
resembling  leaves,  twigs,  roots,  etc. :  these  receptacles 
are  enlarged  as  the  pupa  increases  in  size.  They  live  on 
the  leaves  of  different  water  plants,  preferring  the  water 
ranunculus.  Enveloped  in  this  clumsy  screen,  they, 
nevertheless,  creep  over  the  earth,  or  climb  up  plants 
with  ease ;  choosing  materials,  which,  lighter  than  water, 
they  can  sink  at  pleasure.  These  cells  have  two  open- 
ings, one  at  each  extremity,  which,  during  the  pupa 
state,  are  guarded  by  a  kind  of  silken  lattice-work, 


INSECTA.  141 

which  allows  free  passage  for  the --water  and  excludes 
enemies.  They  live  in  ponds  and  standing  waters,  but 
mostly  go  on  land  to  await  their  metamorphosis. 

To  the  Terrestrial  Transparent  Winged  belongs, 
first, 

The  Ant  Lion  (myrmecoleon  libello ides),  plate  26,  fig. 
5a,  56,  which  measures  more  than  an  inch  in  longitude ; 
has  long,  hanging  wings,  with  dark  brown  spots,  and 
short,  club-like  antennae  ;  somewhat  resembles  the  drag- 
on-fly, and  feeds  on  soft  fruits.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  the 
sand,  from  which  the  larvae,  in  time,  develope ;  the  lar- 
vte  are  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  long,  of  a  grayish- 
brown  color,  with  three  pairs  of  feet  and  pincer-like 
mandibles,  which  are  hollow,  and  serve  as  suckers.  This 
insect  always  moves  in  a  backward  direction ;  therefore, 
being  incapable  of  pursuing  prey,  it  has  recourse  to 
stratagem,  which  it  practices  as  follows :  it  digs  in  the 
sand  a  conical  pitfall,  in  the  bottom  of  which  it  lies  con- 
cealed, only  keeping  its  jaws  exposed.  If  an  unlucky 
insect,  an  ant,  for  instance,  comes  to  the  edge  of  this 
tunnel,  it  is  almost  certain  to  fall  in,  when  it  is  at  once 
seized  by  the  jaws  of  the  tyrant,  and  squeezed  to  death. 
Sometimes  the  poor  ant  has  strength  enough  to  cling  to 
the  side  of  the  tunnel,  but  the  wily  foe  knows  how  to 
meet  the  difficulty,  and  in  such  a  case  never  fails  to 
shower  sand  upon  it,  which  rarely  fails  to  bring  it  to 
the  bottom  of  the  pit.  It  is  most  interesting  to  watch 
the  contest  between  the  striving  insects,  the  one  defend- 
ing itself  bravely,  which  is,  however,  unavailing,  for  no 
matter  how  vigorously  it  may  resist,  the  ambushed  foe, 
continuing  to  throw  up  sand  with  its  shovel-formed  head, 
is  sure  to  conquer. 

The   ant-lion  never   feeds  on  dead  insects.     Before 


142  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

transformation  it  buries  itself  deeper  in  the  sand,  where 
it  spins  itself  a  perfectly  round  cocoon  composed  of  a 
silky  matter,  the  exterior  of  which  it  covers  with  sand, 
so  that  it  looks  like  a  sand  ball  of  four  or  five  lines  in 
length.  In  about  four  weeks,  and  towards  the  end  of 
August,  the  perfect  insect  makes  its  appearance. 

The  Plant  Louse  Lion  (hemerobius  perla)  is  a  very 
pretty,  delicately  formed  little  insect,  with  an  extended 
body  like  the  LibellulcB ;  the  wings  are  long,  broad, 
and.  roof- like,  extend  far  above  the  body.  Their  tex- 
ture is  web- like,  fine,  and  tender  as  gauze ;  closely 
veined,  and  so  transparent  that  the  brilliant  metallic 
coloring  of  the  body,  glancing  from  gold  to  green,  is 
easily  distinguished  through  them.  The  large  eyes  are 
globous,  and  shine  like  sparkling  gems.  The  larvae,  one 
inch  and  two  lines  long,  are  cinnamon  color,  striated  on 
the  back  with  citron  yellow;  tawny  white  below,  and 
slightly  hairy ;  feed  on  the  aphides,  and,  being  extremely 
voracious,  and  sucking  only  the  juices  from  the  body,  they 
destroy  these  insects  in  great  numbers.  After  fourteen 
days'  existence  in  this  larvae  state,  they  pass  into  the 
pupa,  and  spinning  themselves  into  a  cocoon,  await  their 
transformation.  In  three  weeks  the  perfect  insect  is 
developed.  There  are  many  relative  species. 

The  Termites  (termes  fatale).  The  termites,  which 
are  generally  known  by  the  name  of  White  Ants,  live 
in  India,  Africa,  and  South  America,  and  before  attain- 
ing their  fall  growth,  resemble  the  common  ant.  The 
perfect  insect  has  four  transparent,  large,  brownish 
wings,  and  are  as  large  again  as  the  larvae ;  the  latter 
are  white,  have  the  form  of  our  small  ants,  and  very 
sharp  teeth.  They  are  as  skillful,  industrious  and  prov- 
ident as  the  smaller  tribes  of  the  ant  species,  building 


INSECTA.  143 

themselves  dwellings  of  a  globular  *  form,  composed  of 
calcareous  matter,  and  very  large.  The  rojal  chamber 
occupies  the  center,  and,  shaped  something  like  a  bake- 
oven.  is  the  dwelling-place  of  the  queen.  This  royal 
ant,  when  full  winged  and  filled  with  eggs,  is  a  thousand 
times  larger  than  the  common  termite.  The  white  ants 
live  in  a  community,  and  are  divided  into  three  classes, 
the  workers,  which  are  barely  three  lines  long,  the  sol- 
diers, half  an  inch  long,  and  the  king  and  queen,  which 
are  the  only  perfect  insects.  The  workers  are  supposed 
to  be  the  larvee,  and  the  soldiers  the  nymphse  ;  the  for- 
mer are  the  builders,  and  carry  provisions,  the  latter 
guard  the  stores,  and,  what  is  singular,  there  are  never 
found  but  two  perfect  insects  in  one  nest.  When  the 
larvae,  passing  through  the  pupa  state,  are  at  length 
transformed  into  the  perfect  insect,  and  ready  to  go 
forth,  they  may  be  seen  swarming  in  the  evenings  before 
the  rainy  season,  going  oif  in  multitudes  to  form  new 
colonies.  The  workers  and  soldiers,  however,  never 
appear,  but  pursue  their  labors  unremittingly  under  the 
earth,  or  trunks  of  trees.  They  commit  great  ravages 
in  furniture,  beams,  posts,  and,  in  short,  every  kind  of 
wood,  by  boring,  forming  galleries  throughout  the  inside, 
but  leaving  the  outer  surface  untouched,  but  which,  nev- 
ertheless, falls  to  pieces  on  the  slightest  stroke.  With 
surprising  instinct,  however,  they  cover  their  operations 
with  a  coating  of  clay,  cemented  by  a  peculiar  secretion 
provided  by  nature,  which  conceals  their  depredations 
from  a  superficial  observation ;  none  ever  suspecting 
their  ravages,  whilst  they  are  sapping  and  mining  below. 
They  are  most  destructive  in  the  lightly-built  houses  of 
the  torrid  zone.  These  mischief-working  operations, 
keeping  the  outside  fair  while  laboring  to  ruin  the  struc- 


144  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ture  within,  is  not  without  a  parallel  in  human  nature, 
and  may  often  be  observed  in  individual  life  as  well  as 
in  a  social  community.  The  females,  filled  with  eggs, 
like  the  larva)  of  the  palm  beetle,  are  eaten  as  dainty 
food.  There  is  a  tribe  of  wandering  ants  found  in 
Guinea,  not  unlike  the  above-described,  with  yellow 
breast-plates,  and  black  heads  and  bodies  ;  and,  not  less 
scourges,  crawl  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  devour  or 
ruin  everything  they  meet  with  in  their  journeyings, 
wherefore  the  inhabitants  destroy  them  with  arsenic. 
The  cells  of  the  termites  are  described  in  many  natural 
histories  to  be  most  artistically  constructed ;  this  is  not 
so ;  they  are  only  ill-shaped  masses  of  clay,  or,  if  formed 
on  trees,  a  wooden  lump,  in  which  the  ligneous  body  of 
the  trunk  or  branch  is  curiously  hollowed  into  cells  about 
the  size  of  a  chestnut,  in  each  of  which  a  young  ant  is 
deposited,  and  the  openings  closed  with  a  filamentous 
covering,  so  as  to  insure  its  safety. 


FOURTH     OEDER. 

BUTTERFLIES. 

The  Lepidoptera  or  Butterflies  are  distinguished 
from  all  other  insects  by  having  their  beautiful  wings 
covered  with  a  scaly  dust  which  renders  them  opaque. 
In  themselves,  they  are  colorless  and  transparent,  and 
if  rubbed  between  the  fingers  lose  that  beautiful  dust 
which  gives  them  their  opacity  and  brilliancy,  leaving 
them  pale  and  diaphanous,  like  those  of  a  fly.  Being 
closely  examined,  in  a  microscope,  this  dust  appears  to 
consist  of  small  leaves  resembling  the  petals  of  the  suc- 
cory blossoms,  and,  fixed  on  the  wings  by  their  minute 


145 


foot-stalks,  assuming  on  the  borders  the  form  of  scales 
or  hairs.  The  head  is  furnished  with  two  large  eyes, 
which,  seemingly  composed  of  fifteen  thousand  cornea, 
resemble  the  facets  of  cut  glass.  Butterflies  have  no 
teeth ;  a  proboscis,  which  can  be  contracted  or  extended 
at  pleasure,  serves  them  for  extracting  the  sweet  juices 
of  trees  or  flowers  on  which  they  feed,  and  is  composed 
of  two  tubular  filaments  lying  close  together. 

These  insects  undergo  the  most  complete  metamorpho- 
sis ;  first,  the  egg  from  which  proceeds  the  well-known 
caterpillar.  Some  kinds  of  these  larvae  are  social,  and 
spin  for  themselves  a  common  nest  in  which  they  live 
together,  until  they  are  able  to  come  forth  and  sustain 
themselves  singly.  Most  of  them  have  eight  pairs  of 
feet ;  three  pairs,  the  forelegs  or  feet,  are  covered  with 
a  horny  substance,  resembling  scales;  four  pairs,  situ- 
ated in  the  middle  portion  of  the  body,  are  membrane- 
ous;0 the  last  pair  are  situated  at  the  posterior  extrem- 
ity.f  Some — the  Spanners  or  Measurers^ — are  without 
the  middle  or  membraneous  feet,  and  walk  by  seizing 
hold  of  the  object  with  the  six  fore  feet,  and,  elevating 
the  body  into  an  arch,  bring  the  hind  feet  close  to  the 
others,  and  disengaging  the  first,  repeat  the  maneuver ; 
their  mode  of  progress  is  too  well  known  to  require  a 
more  minute  description.  Most  of  these  caterpillars  are 
are  of  brilliant  color ;  some  have  soft  naked  bodies,  oth- 
ers are  hairy,  tubercled,  or  spined ;  some  soft  and  downy, 
others  coarse  and  bristly.  Peculiar  species  feed  on  the 
leaves  of  peculiar  plants ;  others  are  not  particular,  but 

*  In  the  perfect  insect  these  membraneous  feet  disappear,  leaving 
but  six  visible. 

\  Called  by  the  Germans  Nachschieber. 
\  Geomeira  or  Loopers.    Tr. 

7 


146  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

find  subsistence  on  any  that  offer.  Their  maxillary 
organs  are  fitted  for  gnawing  vegetable  substances,  and 
their  voracity  is  so  great  that  they  will  in  one  day  devour 
an  amount  of  food  double  the  weight  of  their  own  bodies. 
When  about  to  be  transformed,  they  prepare  a  suitable 
place  in  which  the  nympha  may  await  the  final  change. 
Every  caterpillar  can  spin,  but  all  do  not  spin  a  perfect 
cocoon  in  which  they  are  enclosed  as  in  a  tomb;  many 
content  themselves  with  attaching  silken  threads  to  suit- 
able objects,  and  thus  form  a  ruder  cell.  The  spinnaret 
is  situated  in  the  mouth ;  the  material  used  a  species  of 
saliva.  Every  one  knows  that  silk  is  spun  by  caterpil- 
lars ;  the  single  thread,  however,  like  that  of  the  spider, 
is  not  a  simple  filament,  but  composed  of  many  fine 
strands.  Many  of  the  species,  whose  spinnarets  do  not 
elaborate  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  silky  material  to 
form  an  envelope  for  the  pupa,  attach  themselves  to 
leaves,  which  serves  for  a  defense ;  others  creep  into 
crevices  in  the  bark  of  trees,  and  a  few  remain  without 
any  covering  whatever.  The  life  of  a  caterpillar  is  but 
a  succession  of  changes  until  reaching  the  growth  neces- 
sary for  the  pupa  state,  often  throwing  off  its  external 
covering  and  assuming  a  new  one.  The  nympha  never 
alters.  The  time  required  for  the  development  of  the 
imago  or  perfect  insect  varies,  according  to  the  different 
genera ;  but  the  most  beautiful  and  interesting  specimen 
of  this  wonderful  process  is  to  observe  the  butterfly  at 
the  moment  of  its  final  transformation.  The  pupa  is 
seen  to  move  and  turn  within  the  inclosing  envelope, 
until  at  length  it  bursts,  and  the  perfect  butterfly  comes 
forth.  If  entombed  within  a  cocoon,  they  discharge  an 
acrid  liquid,  \jbich  softens  the  silk,  and  allows  its  escape. 
At  the  moment  of  its  coming  forth,  the  wings  are  small 


INSECTA.  147 

and  folded  together;  soon,  however,  separating,  they 
commence  a  tremulous  movement,  in  which  they  seem 
to  grow,  but  in  truth  are  only  unfolding,  preparatory  to 
flight.  After  a  short  rest  they  may  be  seen  fairly  on 
the  wing,  fluttering  from  flower  to  flower,  sipping  honey 
from  their  bells.  Their  perfect  life  is,  however,  much 
shorter  than  that  of  the  caterpillar  and  nymphee,  and 
having  enjoyed  the  sunshine  for  a  brief  space,  prepares 
for  its  posterity  as  the  principal  end  of  its  brief  exist- 
ence. The  female  deposits  her  eggs,  which  are  hard  and 
horn-like,  on  plants  which  she  knows  well  how  to  select, 
as  affording  nourishment  and  protection  to  the  larvae. 
The  eggs  of  most  are  fastened  together  with  an  adhesive 
substance,  and  deposited  on  the  leaves  and  twigs  of 
plants;  many  cover  them  with  a  sort  of  down  which 
shields  them  from  the  air  and  weather.  Having  thus 
provided  for  the  future  generation,  the  butterfly,  if  not 
destroyed  by  some  of  the  many  enemies  of  the  race,  dies, 
having  fulfilled  the  ultimate  end  of  her  existence. 

The  caterpillars,  with  the  exception  of  the  silkworm, 
-which  are  of  the  greatest  use  to  man  in  furnishing  silk — 
are  a  very  destructive  race  ;  and  their  ravages  would  be 
too  seriously  injurious  to  be  guarded  against,  had  not 
nature  provided  against  the  evil,  by  raising  up  a  host  of 
hostile  pursuers,  which  seek  them  as  prey.  The  insect- 
eating  birds  destroy  great  numbers,  but  the  ichnumon- 
fly  is,  perhaps,  their  most  formidable  enemy.  These 
little  green  and  gold  colored  wasps  alight  on  the  backs 
of  the  caterpillars,  and  with  their  fine  stings  puncture  a 
number  of  small  cells,  in  each  of  which  they  deposit  an 
egg ;  in  a  little  while  a  grub  comes  forth,  ready  to  begin 
a  similar  life,  and  again  piercing  the  flesh  of  the  victim, 
feeds  upon  the  juices,  until  the  body  is  entirely  exhaust- 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


ed.  There  are  also  flies  tbat  lay  tbeir  eggs  among  those 
of  the  butterfly ;  and  thus  the  race,  which  otherwise 
would  be  so  numerous  as  to  become  a  pest,  is  kept  within 
bounds  by  forming  food  for  the  larvae  of  bugs  and  beetles. 
The  butterflies  are  divided  into  four  families : 

I.  Hesperia,  or  Evening  Moths. 
II.  Nocturnes,  or  Phalaena. 

III.  Crepuscularia,  Rovers. 

IV.  DiurncB,  or  Butterflies. 


I.— MOTHS  (Blatta). 

These  are  small  butterflies,  which,  avoiding  the  day, 
are  only  seen  in  the  evening ;  have  small  and  rather  flat 
wings,  and  but  seldom  provided  with  a  proboscis.  The 
larvae  come  forth  altogether  unclothed,  or  covered  with 
almost  invisible  hairs ;  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  cat- 
erpillars of  the  grub  order,  and  live  concealed,  perfecting 
their  metamorphosis  in  a  cell  of  their  own  construction. 
They  are  divided  into  three  families,  the  Tinea,  or  true 
moths,  Leaf  Rollers,  and  White  or  Candle  Moths. 


I. — MOTHS. 

These  are  the  smallest  of  the  race,  with  roof-like  or 
enveloping  wings,  which,  horizontally  spread,  are  covered 
with  a  shining  silvery  dust.  Their  caterpillars  make 
galleries  in  portions  of  plants  or  dead  animal  matter,  on 
which  they  feed,  or  else  construct,  in  a  most  skillful 
manner,  cases  of  silk,  hair,  or  skin  of  leaves.  They 
undergo  their  transformation  in  these  cases. 

The  Pine  Moth  (tinea  sylvestrella),  plate  23,  fig.  1, 


INSECTA.  149 

measures  an  inch  across,*  from  outspread  wing  to  wing; 
upper  wings,  or  elytra,  reddish-gray,  marked  with  angu- 
lar lines,  the  lower  brown,  and  dark  on  the  borders, 
both  fringed  on  the  edges,  body  reddish-gray.  The 
caterpillar,  which  is  hairy,  and  at  first  a  dirty  olive 
color,  which  afterwards  changes  to  gray,  lives  on  the 
tender  branches  of  the  pines,  and  renders  them  crooked. 
Thus,  they  are  very  injurious.  They  envelope  them- 
selves in  a  brown  cocoon  placed  in  a  crevice  of  the  bark, 
where  they  remain  all  winter. 

The  Resin  Moth  (tinea  resinella)  is  brown,  nearly 
black  ;  under  wings  lighter,  with  pale-fringed  borders  ; 
upper  wings  silver-gray,  and  marked  with  bands  ;  eight 
lines  in  length.  The  caterpillar,  brown  and  hairy,  bores 
into  the  fir  trees,  thus  forming  galls,  in  which  the  brown- 
ish-black pupa  awaits  its  transformation,  and  in  early 
spring  comes  forth  winged. 

The  Apple  Tree  Moth  (tinea  pomonella)  measures 
nine  lines ;  body  and  upper  wings  gray,  striped  with 
brown,  and  adorned  on  each  side  with  a  coppery,  eye- 
. shaped  ring;  lower  wings  reddish-brown,  bordered  with 
gray;  the  caterpillar,  or  larva,  naked,  and  of  a  pale 
yellow  color,  bores  into  the  fruit,  even  to  the  seeds,  of 
apples  and  pears,  thus  destroying  them.  In  July  these 
larvee  come  forth,  and  fixing  themselves  in  the  crevices 
of  the  bark,  spin  a  thick,  silky  cocoon,  in  which  the 
pale  brown  pupa  remains  all  winter.  They  are  very 
injurious. 

The  Common  Corn  Moth  (tinea  granella)  measures 
from  six  to  seven  lines ;  the  wings  are  small,  fringed, 
and  when  at  rest  elevated  behind.  Body  and  posterior 

*  This  measure  always  relates  to  the  expanse  of  wings. 


150  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

wings  pale  grayish-brown ;  anterior  marbled  whitish, 
yellow-brown,  and  black.  In  May  they  deposit  their 
diminutive  eggs  in  the  grains  of  different  cereals.  In  a 
week  after,  the  little  yellowish  larva  makes  its  appear- 
ance, at  first  feeding  singly  on  the  grain  in  which  it  was 
hatched,  but  afterwards  a  number  spin  themselves  to- 
gether in  a  mass,  constructing  a  silken  web,  behind  which 
they  conceal  themselves,  closing  up  the  opening  with 
excrementitious  matter.  About  the  end  of  August,  they 
crawl  into  the  crevices  of  the  posts  or  beams  of  the  gran- 
ary, where  they  envelope  themselves  in  their  cocoons. 

The  species  known  as  the  white  corn  worm  is  very 
destructive ;  the  usual  method  of  getting  rid  of  these 
vermin,  is  to  turn  over  the  grain  frequently,  and  sprinkle 
it  with  salt. 

The  Clothes  Moth  (tinea  sarcitella).  six  lines  in 
length,  with  silver-gray  wings,  thread-like  antennae,  and 
two  short  probosci.  As  soon  as  the  little  larvae  emerge 
from  the  egg,  they  begin  to  clothe  themselves,  selecting 
furs  or  woolens  for  that  purpose.  Thus  enveloped,  it 
may  be  supposed  that  the  body  outgrows  the  garment, 
and  such  really  is  the  case  ;  but,  instead  of  deserting  the 
old  tube  and  forming  a  new  one,  they  lengthen  it  at  one 
end  as  they  grow,  and  slit  it  in  order  to  increase  its  dia- 
meter, by  adding  another  piece.  If  formed,  at  first,  of 
gray  cloth,  the  little  cocoon  will  be  gray,  if  enlarged 
with  the  wool  of  red,  the  patch  will  retain  the  color  of 
its  original.  The  wool  of  clothes  and  hair  of  furs  not 
only  serves  these  little  destructives  for  a  covering,  but 
also  for  food,  which  they  prepare  by  some  singular  pro- 
cess of  softening,  peculiar  to  themselves,  and  thus  destroy 
whatever  they  harbor  in.  "When  fully  grown,  they 
undergo  their  transformation,  mostly  in  chinks  or  cracks 


INSECTA.  151 

of  wood,  and  perfected  in  three  weeks,  come  forth  as 
winged  insects.  They  are  too  well  known  as  the  scourges 
of  woolens  and  peltries  to  require  further  description. 

2.— THE  LEAF  ROLLERS  (Tortrices), 

Have  horizontal  or  roof-like  wings.  The  larvae  are 
smooth-bodied,  and  never  live  in  the  open  air,  hut  either 
singly  or  in  companies,  in  leaves,  which  they  roll  up  or 
convert  into  tunnels.  The  metamorphosis  is  effected  in 
cocoons,  shaped  like  a  boat. 

The  Pine  Leaf  Roller  (tortrix  buoliana)  is  nearly  an 
inch  long,  with  small,  yellowish-red  wings ;  the  superior 
pair  are  transversely  striped  with  silvex-white ;  the  infe- 
rior are  shining  white,  glancing  into  a  coppery  luster ; 
the  corselet  reddish-yellow ;  abdomen  gray-brown.  The 
caterpillars,  very  injurious,  are  brown,  with  black  heads, 
and  live  on  the  sap  of  the  young  pine  trees,  into  which 
they  bore.  Many  live  together  in  one  nest,  which  they 
make  upon  the  tenderest  sprouts  of  the  branches.  They 
pass  the  Avinter  in  the  pupa  state ;  the  nymphaa  are  long 
and  of  a  dull  yellow-brown  color. 

The  Beech  Leaf  Roller  (tortrix  prassinana),  plate  23, 
fig.  3,  is  over  an  inch  in  length ;  body  and  anterior 
wings  yellow-green,  striped  alternately  with  bright  red 
and  yellow,  the  lower  wings  brownish.  The  larva,  also, 
measures  an  inch,  is  smooth  and  green,  rolls  the  leaf  of 
the  beech  into  a  sort  of  tunnel,  in  which  it  lives.  Enter- 
ing the  pupa  state  in  October,  it  spins  an  orange-colored 
cocoon  of  a  boat  shape,  and  when  it  comes  forth,  presents 
a  setaceous,  but  handsome,  violet  brown  butterfly. 


152  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


3. — CANDLE  MOTHS. 

The  wings  are  divided  into  partitions  ;  the  legs  long, 
and  fitted  with  a  kind  of  spurs.  They  fly  but  seldom  in 
the  day-time,  and  undergo  the  same  metamorphosis  as 
the  butterfly. 

The  Ghost  Moth  (alucita  pentadactyla),  plate  23, 
fig.  4.  Wings  composed  of  five  feathers ;  length,  one 
inch  ;  altogether  white,  and  very  delicately  formed.  The 
caterpillar  is  pale  green,  with  a  yellow  head,  and  some- 
what hairy ;  lives  on  black  thorn  and  plum  trees  ;  ad- 
heres to  walls,  etc.,  in  the  pupa  state,  and,  after  remain- 
ing thus  for  a  fortnight,  the  green,  somewhat  rough  nym- 
pha,  comes  forth  a  winged  moth. 

II. — PlIAL^NA. 

"Wings  broad,  horizontal  or  roof-shaped ;  feelers  filiform 
or  pectinated ;  body  more  or  less  hairy.  The  caterpillar 
is  smooth  or  hairy,  with  five  or  six  pairs  of  feet ;  undergoes 
the  transforming  process  in  a  cocoon,  sometimes  above, 
sometimes  below  the  earth  or  in  the  open  air.  They  fly 
by  night. 

1. — GEOMETRA. 

The  antennae  are  bristle-like,  sometimes  feathered ; 
proboscis  recurved,  wings  horizontal,  seldom  erect ;  cater- 
pillar slender,  cylindrical,  smooth,  and  provided  with 
five  or  six  pairs  of  feet.  They  feed  by  night:  their 
attitude  of  repose  is  singular ;  extended  along  the  stem 
or  branch,  which  forms  their  home,  they  so  closely  re- 
semble the  little  twigs  of  the  plant  whereon  they  rest, 


IXSECTA.  153 

that  it  is  easy  to  mistake  them  for  wood.  They  undergo 
the  transition  state  in  cocoons  very  slightly  covered  with 
silk,  under  leaves  or  in  the  ground. 

The  Pine  Surveyor  (geometra  pinaria),  plate  23,  fig. 
7.  Fourteen  lines  in  length ;  males  have  wings  of  a 
hrownish-yellow,  bordered  and  striped  with  black,  an- 
tennae slightly  pectinated;  females  reddish -brown,  edged 
with  darker  brown,  and  striped  transversely.  These 
insects  make  their  appearance  in  the  spring,  and  remain 
until  the  summer.  The  caterpillar,  which  is  yellowish- 
green  and  measures  fifteen  lines,  commits  great  ravages 
in  the .  pine  forests.  They  accomplish  their  metamor- 
phosis under  moss ;  the  nympha  is  at  first  green,  but 
afterwards  becomes  of  a  shining  brown. 

The  Frost  Moth  (geometra  brumaria).  The  males 
are  over  an  inch  long,  possessing  strong,  gray-brown 
upper  wings,  which  are  rounded  off;  the  lower  are  paler. 
The  females  have  only  slight  rudiments  of  wings,  and 
deposit  their  eggs  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  buds  of 
fruit  and  forest  trees.  The  caterpillar,  seven  lines  long, 
is  green,  with  three  yellow  stripes  and  a  brown  head,  is 
very  injurious,  and  changes  under  the  ground  to  a  light 
brown  pupa. 

The  Linden  Moth  (geometra  marmoraria),  two  inches 
long,  has  white  wings ;  the  upper  pair  are  dotted  with 
dark  points  and  bordered  with  white ;  the  antennae  of  the 
males  are  light  brown,  those  of  the  female  white,  ringed 
with  black.  The  caterpillar,  two  inches  in  length,  with 
two  knobbed  protuberances  on  the  posterior  portion  of 
the  body,  lives  on  the  poplar,  willow,  beech,  and  linden, 
and  when  ready  for  transition  into  the  pupa  state,  enters 
the  earth. 

Geometra  Alniaria   measures  seventeen  lines,  with 


154  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

two  oblique  brown  stripes  upon  the  fore  wings ;  on  each 
of  the  posterior  wings  is  a  large  moonshaped  spot  of 
brown ;  the  caterpillar,  also  brown,  is  two  inches  long, 
lives  on  the  alder  and  birch,  and  with  its  brown,  rugged, 
ligneous-looking  body  extended  along  the  branch,  may- 
be easily  mistaken  for  a  dry  twig.  It  changes  in  the 
summer  to  a  brown  pupa,  and  makes  its  cocoon  in  the 
earth  or  under  leaves. 

The  Birch  Surveyor  (geometra  betularia).  Two 
inches  long  ;  is  yellow  or  greenish-white,  with  numerous 
dark  points  and  stripes ;  the  antennae  of  the  males  feath- 
ery. The  caterpillar,  from  two  to  tAvo  and  a  half  inches 
in  length,  is  very  handsome ;  lives  on  different  trees  and 
shrubs ;  always  changes  its  color  after  feeding,  but,  when 
stretched  out  to  rest,  resembles  a  dead  twig.  It  does  not 
assume  the  pupa  form  until  late  autumn,  when,  as  a 
nympha  of  a  dark  brown  color,  it  undergoes  the  transition 
state  in  a  smooth  hole  in  the  earth,  coming  forth  in  May. 

2. — XOCTUA. 

The  butterflies  of  this  family  are  tolerably  large  and 
more  brightly  colored  than  the  Geometra  or  Loopers ; 
head  large ;  antennae  often  pectinated  ;  proboscis  very 
short ;  body  hairy.  The  caterpillar  is  flat,  seldom  hairy, 
and  mostly  dark  colored.  Enclosed  in  a  cocoon,  they 
pass  the  transition  stage  in  the  earth. 

St.  John's  Bird  (noctua  jacobaea)  is  an  inch  and  a 
half  long ;  black  and  very  common ;  the  upper  wings, 
dark  brown,  have  each  a  stripe  and  two  eye-shaped  spots 
of  carmine  color ;  the  under  wings  of  the  latter  color, 
bordered  with  black.  The  caterpillar,  ringed  alternately 
yellow  and  black,  lives  in  the  flowers  of  the  St.  John's 


INSECT  A.  155 

"Wort,  and  changes  in  the  earth  to  a  pupa  of  a  reddish 
brown. 

Noctua  Delphinii  is  nearly  of  the  same  size  as  the 
above.  Upper  -wings  purple,  marked  with  rose  red ; 
lower  pair  grayish-blue,  Avith  yellow  borders.  The  cat- 
erpillar, an  inch  and  a  half  long,  violet-gray,  striped 
with  yellow,  and  dotted  with  black,  lives  upon  the  wild 
larkspur — many  of  the  species  receive  their  names  from 
the  plants  on  which  they  feed — and  in  autumn  changes 
into  a  dark  brown  chrysalis,  from  which  the  imago 
emerges  in  May. 

The  Silver  Moth  (noctua  argentea)  is  above  an  inch 
long ;  upper  wings  green,  with  silver  hued  stripes ; 
lower  white,  with  large  green  half-moon  spots  and  white 
border.  The  caterpillar  is  greenish-yellow,  and  is  found 
in  late  autumn ;  lives  in  the  field  mugwort.  It  makes 
a  large  cocoon,  which  encloses  an  ochre-colored  pupa. 

The  Dagger  Moth  (noctua  psi).  The  butterfly  is  an 
inch  and  a  half  long ;  gray,  and  the  upper  wings  marked 
with  black,  one  of  which  is  shaped  like  the  letter  i>. 
The  caterpillar  is  black  above,  gray,  marked  with  red, 
below,  and  has  a  long,  cone-like  knob  on  the  fourth  ring. 
In  autumn  it  makes  a  cocoon  or  web  under  dry  leaves, 
and  changes  into  a  reddish-brown  pupa. 

The  Knotgrass  Moth  (noctua  rumicis),  plate  23,  fig. 
8.  More  than  an  inch  long ;  the  upper  wings  are  bluish - 
gray,  marked  with  white  and  black  ;  lower  wings  yellow- 
gray.  The  caterpillars,  black,  and  marked  with  yellow, 
red.  atid  white,  are  ornamented  with  tufts  of  red  hair, 
and  live  on  cabbages  and  sorrel.  They  pass  the  pupa 
state  in  the  crevices  of  wood,  covered  with  a  web  of  their 
own  making.  The  nympa  is  dark  brown. 

The  Agate  Wing  (noctua  meticulosa).     Two  inches 


156  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

long  ;  the  color  is  reddish-gray,  green,  and  brown,  in  wavy 
panels,  beautifully  marked  ;  tufts  of  hair  on  the  breast- 
plate. The  brown  or  green  caterpillar,  with  irregular 
white  lines  on  the  back  and  yellow  stripes  on  the  sides, 
lives  on  mallows,  cabbage,  celery,  etc.  ;  eats  only  at 
night,  and  conceals  itself  in  day  time  under  the  leaves. 
It  passes  through  its  tranformation  in  a  web  under  the 
earth,  which  retreat  is  covered  with  bits  of  leaves  and 
sand.  The  pupa  is  dark  brown. 

The  Gamma  Moth  (noctua  gamma).  About  the 
same  size  with  the  above;  upper  wings  brown,  with  a 
brilliant  metallic  luster  of  copper,  silver,  and  gold,  inter- 
mingled and  beautifully  marked  with  light  and  dark  lines ; 
underneath  is  a  white  y,  from  whence  its  name ;  the 
lower  wings  dull  yellow.  The  caterpillar,  one  inch  long, 
is  green,  and  covered  with  short  hairs  ;  is  very  common, 
and  feeds  upon  all  kinds  of  vegetables,  particularly  flax ; 
found  living  in  companies,  and  therefore  do  great  damage. 
They  make  a  transparent  case  or  web  upon  the  ground, 
where  they  enclose  themselves  when  ready  for  their 
metamorphosis.  The  pupa  is  green  at  first,  but  after- 
wards changes  to  dark  brown. 

The  Copper  Wing  (noctua  chrysitis)  exceeds  an  inch 
in  length ;  upper  wings  of  a  brillia,nt  copper  color,  with 
large  black  spots ;  lower  wings  and  body  brown.  The 
caterpillar  resembles  the  above  described ;  lives  on  hoar- 
hound,  mint,  and  nettles.  The  pupa  is  olive-brown. 
This  butterfly  is  very  rare. 

Red  Winged  Moth  (noctua  pyramidea).  One  inch 
and  a  half  long;  upper  wings  red-brown,  with  light, 
somewhat  jagged,  transverse  lines;  the  hinder  wings  are 
of  a  copper  red.  The  caterpillar  is  two  inches  long ; 
green,  with  longitudinal  white  stripes,  and  on  the  pos- 


INSECTA.  157 

terior  portion  of  the  body  a  pyramidal  elevation.  It 
lives  on  the  oak,  beech,  willow,  and  all  kinds  of  fruit 
trees.  The  pupa  is  reddish-brown. 

The  Red  Ribbon  or  Crimson  Undenting  (noctua 
sponsa),  plate  23,  fig.  11,  is  more  than  two  inches  long  ; 
upper  wings  gray,  marked  with  five  wavy  lines  of  black 
and  white  ;  under  wings  of  a  beautiful  carmine  red,  en- 
chased within  a  border  of  transverse  black  stripes.  The 
caterpiller  is  marked  and  spotted  with  yellow,  rusty 
brown,  and  gray  ;  lives  on  the  oak ;  spins  a  cell  between 
leaves,  and  changes  into  a  pupa  covered  with  a  gray  far- 
inaceous substance  resembling  powder.  There  are  rela- 
tive species,  with  scarlet  underwings  and  gray  caterpillars, 
found  on  willows ;  some,  also,  are  of  a  lighter  carmine 
color. 

The  Blue  Ribbon,  Clifden  Nonpar  id  (noctua  fraxini), 
plate  23,  fig.  10.  About  four  inches  long;  body  dark 
gray ;  upper  wings  striped  and  watered  with  gray ;  lower 
wings  dark  brown  ornamented  in  the  middle  with  a  blue 
band  resembling  a  ribbon.  The  caterpillar  is  of  a  pale 
brown  or  rather  ochre  color,  marbled  with  brown,  and 
has  a  knob  on  the  eighth  ring.  The  pupa,  like  that  of 
the  noctua  sponsa,  is  powdered  with  gray.  This  species, 
which  lives  on  the  oak,  aspen,  beech,  and  black  poplar, 
is  very  rare. 

3. — SPINNERS. 

The  body  is  hirsute ;  the  antennae  mostly  pectinated, 
and  furnished  with  a  proboscis.  The  larvae  have  eight 
pairs,  of  feet,  and,  from  being  clothed  with  hairs,  are 
often  called  woolly  bears.  The  metamorphosis  is  accom- 


158  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

plished  in  thick  cocoons,  left  in  the  open  air.  Many  do 
much  damage  to  wood,  which  they  injure  by  boring. 

The  Puss  Moth  (bombyx  vinula)  is  grayish,  with  zig- 
zag lines  of  black  on  the  fore  wings,  which  are  also  veined 
with  orange ;  the  abdominal  portion  of  the  body  irregu- 
larly annulated  or  ringed  with  black.  The  larva,  two 
inches  in  length,  has  its  head  buried  in  the  first  ring  as 
in  a  collar ;  on  the  fourth  ring  is  a  sharp-pointed  tuber- 
cular knob,  and  the  last,  just  at  the  extremity  of  the 
body,  terminates  or  divides  into  two  movable  forked 
points,  which  can  be  bent  inwards,  from  which  it  is  some- 
times called  the  Fork  Tail.  Its  color  is  pale  green  ;  gray 
above,  with  stripes  of  silky  white.  It  lives  upon  the 
willow,  but  in  August  spins  on  the  earth,  and  hides 
between  bits  of  wood  a  thick  cocoon,  which  contains  a 
short,  thick,  brown  pupa,  that  comes  forth,  in  May,  a 
winged  butterfly. 

The  Beech  Spinner,  or  Squirrel  Bird  (bombyx  fagi), 
is  mingled  brown  and  gray  above,  marked  with  light  and 
dark  zig-zag  lines,  dots,  and  points ;  yellow-white  below. 
Its  singular  larva  lives  from  July  to  September  on  the 
beech  and  hazel ;  the  body  is  yellowish-brown,  deeply 
indented,  and  with  long  fore  feet ;  makes  a  gray,  web-like 
nest  in  late  autumn,  between  the  leaves,  where  the  red- 
dish-brown pupa  awaits  its  transition.  This  species  is 
rare. 

The  Goat  Moth  (bombyx  cossus)  has  entirely  the 
color  of  the  bark  on  which  it  is  found :  the  abdomen  is 
ringed  with  black.  The  larva,  from  four  to  five  inches 
long,  lives  in  the  wood  of  the  willow,  oak,  elm,  pear,  and 
apple  trees.  As  soon  as  the  larvae  issue  from  the  eggs, 
which  are  deposited  in  great  numbers  in  clefts  of  the  bark, 
they  work  their  way  into  the  interior,  where  they  feed 


INSECTA.  159 

for  three  years  on  the  wood.  They  are  yellow,  covered 
with  hairs  of  a  brown  color,  shading  into  red.  When 
fully  grown,  their  metamorphosis  takes  place  in  a  fine 
cocoon,  formed  of  the  sawdust  they  make  under  the  bark. 
The  pupa  is  dark  brown,  and  in  three  weeks  comes  forth 
a  butterfly.  This  species  is  very  injurious  to  forests. 

The  Walnut  Moth  (bombyx  pudibunda),  or  Red 
Tail,  is  whitish-brown,  with  four  brown  serrated  lines 
on  each  wing ;  abdomen  yellow.  The  caterpillar,  yellow 
and  bristly,  lives  on  all  kinds  of  fruit  and  forest  trees. 
The  metamorphosis  takes  place  in  August  in  a  double 
cocoon ;  the  red-brown  pupa  comes  forth  in  May,  winged, 
and  is  also  very  injurious. 

The  Vaporer  (bombyx  antiqua).  The  males  have  red- 
brown  wings ;  the  upper  are  marked  with  a  few  dark 
lines,  and  on  the  lower  border  is  a  single  white  spot 
enclosed  in  a  brown  margin.  The  female  has  a  thick 
gray-brown  body,  but  is  without  wings.  Caterpillar 
gray ;  black  above,  with  red  spots,  from  which  yellow 
bristles  protrude ;  they  live  on  all  kinds  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  and  are  very  abundant.  Their  cocoons  are 
brownish-gray ;  the  pupa  pale  yellow,  striped  with  dark 
brown. 

The  Corner  Spot  (bombyx  gogastima)  resembles  this 
species. 

The  Processionaries  (bombyx  procession ea),  plate  24, 
fig.  3,  are  gray,  marked  with  black.  The  caterpillars  of 
these  insects  live  in  societies  on  oak  trees,  are  brownish 
black,  rather  whitish  on  the  sides,  and  covered  with  stiff 
reddish  hairs.  They  dwell  together  in  a  silken  tent  as 
long  as  they  live,  forming  one  community,  and  usually 
issue  forth  in  the  evening  in  a  well-ordered  procession.' 
A  single  one  takes  the  lead,  as  guide,  two  others  follow, 


160  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

forming  the  second  line,  next  three  or  four  abreast,  and 
so  on  for  many  ensuing  columns,  close  behind  each  other, 
when  the  leader  stops,  the  others  do  so  also,  and  having 
found  a  suitable  tree,  they  pursue  the  same  order  of 
march  until  they  reach  the  leaves,  which  they  feed  on  in 
the  same  regular  succession.  They  spin  their  web  a  few 
feet  above  the  earth ;  it  is  of  a  gray-white  silky  material, 
having  an  aperture  above  and  closely  fitted  to  the  tree. 
The  hairs  of  these  larvae  are  very  fine  and  penetrating, 
and  on  being  handled,  are  easily  removed ;  sometimes, 
when  they  work  their  way  deeply  into  the  human  skin, 
inflammations  and  swellings  ensue.  Those  who  meddle 
with  their  nests  are  not  ignorant  of  the  violent  itchings 
caused  by  their  contact.  The  best  remedy  is  to  rub  the 
irritated  skin  with  the  juice  of  parsley. 

The  Lappet  Moth  (bombyx  quercifolia),  plate  24, 
fig.  2,  is  of  a  red-brown  and  gray  color,  and  when  in 
repose  resembles  a  tuft  of  dry  leaves.  The  caterpillar, 
four  inches  long,  is  of  different  colors,  has  on  the  second 
segment  a  blue  mirror-like  spot,  and  on  the  second  an- 
terior ring  a  small  tubercle.  It  feeds  on  grass,  leaves  of 
cherries,  plums,  thorn,  etc.,  passes  the  winter  in  the 
open  air,  spins  its  cocoon  in  June,  and  the  dark  brown 
pupa,  after  three  weeks  retirement,  changes  into  the  per- 
fect butterfly. 

The  Lackey  Moth  (bombyx  neustria),  plate  23,  fig. 
15,  also  called  White  Beech  Moth,  is  pale  yellow,  with 
a  dark  band  on  each  wing.  The  caterpillar  is  found 
everywhere  in  Europe,  living  on  all  kinds  of  fruit  and 
forest  trees.  The  butterfly  lays  its  grayish-white,  pearl- 
like  eggs  in  rings  around  the  twigs,  numbering  from  two 
to  four  hundred,  fastening  them  by  a  glutinous  substance 
which  they  secrete.  In  April  the  larvae  come  forth  and 


IXSECTA.  161 

live  in  societies  under  \vebs  of  large  size  upon  the  fruit- 
trees,  where  they  devour  the  foliage  of  whole  branches, 
leaving  them  bare.  They  are  two  inches  long,  hairy, 
bluish-gray,  striped  on  the  back  with  orange.  The  web 
is  double  and  of  a  brownish-white  ;  the  metamorphosis 
is  perfected  in  three  weeks,  and  the  bluish-gray  pupa  is 
transformed  into  a  gay  butterfly. 

The  Golden  Tall  Moth  (bombyx  chrysorrhrea)  is 
altogether  white,  lays  its  eggs  in  July  on  twigs  and 
leaves,  covering  them  with  a  brown  wool,  taken  from  its 
own  body.  The  caterpillars,  which  make  their  appear- 
ance in  late  autumn,  pass  the  winter  in  webs  ;  at  this  time . 
they  can  easily  be  discovered  and  destroyed.  They  are 
hairy,  gray  and  brown,  with  white  spots  and  a  reddish- 
brown  stripe  along  the  back.  They  are  very  injurious 
to  hedges,  willows,  elms,  etc.  The  brown  pupa  under- 
goes its  tiunsformation  in  a  white  cocoon. 

The  Gipsey  Moth  (bombyx  dispar).  Males  dull  yel- 
low-brown, marked  with  brown  zigzag  lines ;  females 
larger,  vellowish-white,  and  similarly  striped.  The  cat- 
erpillars, black,  bristly,  with  a  yellow  head  and  body, 
spotted  with  red  and  yellow,  live  in  societies,  feed  on  the 
leaves  of  fruit  and  forest  trees,  on  which  they  commit 
great  ravages.  The  metamorphosis  takes  place  in  July ; 
the  cocoon  or  web  is  large,  reddish- white,  and  placed  in 
crevices  in  the  bark,  and  after  a  period  of  two  or  three 
weeks  the  red-brown,  yellow-haired  pupa  comes  forth  to 
begin  a  new  existence  as  a  winged  insect. 

The  Fir  Tree  Spinner  (bombyx  pini),  plate  24,  fig. 
5,  is  drab-colored,  with  brown  lines  on  the  upper  wings, 
lighter  colored  on  the  lower,  so  that  it  resembles  a  bit  of 
pine  bark  ;  remains  hidden  in  the  crevices  of  the  trunk 
by  day,  flying  round  only  at  night.  Its  large,  hairy 


162  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

cushion-formed  caterpillar  is  very  injurious  to  the  fir 
saplings. 

The  Brown  Bear  (bombyx  caja),  also  known  as  the 
Tiger  Moth  ;  thorax  brown,  with  two  red  stripes ;  upper 
wings  brown,  marked  with  yellow-white  ;  lower  wings 
and  abdomen  red.  spotted  with  black.  The  long,  thickly- 
haired  caterpillars  are  black,  thinly  dotted  with  red, 
brown,  and  blue.  In  August  the  butterfly  deposits  about 
three  hundred  green  eggs  on  the  under  side  of  leaves  ; 
in  three  weeks  the  caterpillars  come  forth  and  feed  on 
grass,  salad,  potato-tops,  rose-leaves,  etc. ;  the  next  May 
they  spin  a  large  web,  which  covers  small  cocoons,  con- 
taining the  black  pupae.  The  transitionary  stage  is 
accomplished  in  four  weeks,  and  a  winged  insect  springs 
into  life.  The  Ichneumon  flies  are  their  great  enemies. 

The  Matron  (bombyx  matronula),  plate  23,  fig.  9, 
has  brown  upper  wings,  adorned  with  six  sulphur-colored 
spots ;  lower  wings  bright  yellow,  with  three  transverse 
stripes  of  black.  The  caterpillar  is  very  hairy,  and 
varies  in  color  according  to  its  age.  They  feed  on  the 
leaves  of  the  linden,  pear,  service-berry,  etc.,  and  remain 
during  the  winter  under  the  moss.  They  do  not  pass 
into  the  pupa  state  until  in  the  spring  of  the  second 
year.  They  are  also  called  bears. 

The  Great  Night  Peacock's  Eye  (bombyx  pavonia 
major)  measures  five  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings  ;  is 
dark  gray,  marked  with  yellow ;  nearly  in  the  middle  of 
each  wing  is  an  eye-shaped  spot  of  bright  blue,  yellow, 
and  red.  The  caterpillars  are  mostly  found  on  pear 
trees  ;  they  are  of  a  yellowish-green  color,  tuberculated 
with  blue,  from  which  knobs  proceed  black  hairs.  When 
ready  for  the  transition  state,  they  make  a  very  curious 
cocoon,  being  formed  internally  with  stiff,  convergent, 


INSECTA.  163 

elastic  threads,  which  facilitate  the  escape  of  the  enclosed 
insect,  but  prevent  the  entrance  of  intruders.  There  are 
several  smaller  species  belonging  to  this  family. 

The  Silk  Worm  (bombyx  mori)  is  yellow-white,  with 
broad,  brownish  transverse  stripes  on  the  superior  wings. 
The  caterpillar  is  pale  gray,  and  called  the  silk  worm. 
The  silken  material  of  which  this  worm  makes  its  regular 
cocoon,  is  a  glutinous  mass  of  threads  spun  from  the 
mouth ;  these  are  very  tough,  can  not  be  dissolved  in 
hot  water,  and  are  easily  dried  in  the  air.  The  silk 
worm  came  originally  from  China,  where  the  culture  of 
silk  was  practiced  from  very  remote  ages.  Sixteen  hun- 
dred years  ago  silk  was  so  dear  that  the  wife  of  the 
Roman  emperor  was  refused  a  robe  of  silk,  as  being  too 
expensive  a  luxury.  In  the  middle  ages  the  eggs  of  the 
silk  worm  were  first  brought  to  Europe.  In  555,  some 
Greek  missionaries,  during  the  reign  of  Justinian,  having 
penetrated  to  the  northern  provinces  of  China,  procured 
some  eggs,  which  they  concealed  in  hollow  canes,  and 
brought  to  the  emperor.  They  were  hatched  by  the 
heat  of  a  dunghill,  and  the  larvae  grew,  prospered,  and 
formed  the  foundation  of  the  race  in  Europe.  The  cul- 
ture of  silk,  however,  was  but  little  attended  to  before 
the  year  600.  The  caterpillars  of  the  bombyx  feed  on 
the  leaves  of  the  white  mulberry ;  should  these  fail  they 
will  eat  garden  lettuce,  alder  or  pear  tree  leaves,  which 
must  be  given  them  twice  every  day  and  perfectly  dry. 
The  little  larvae  are  at  first  brown  or  dark  gray,  but 
gradually  grow  whiter.  The  skin  is  cast  several  times  ; 
they  are  very  tender  and  so  extremely  susceptible  of 
cold,  that  in  spring  it  is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  warm 
rooms.  When  ready  for  the  transitionary  state,  they  ai*e 
fed  on  the  leaves  of  mugwort.  They  first  spin  a 


164  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

cocoon  of  fine  silken  fibers,  and  then  others  of  coarser 
texture,  until  the  minute  threads  are  formed  into  a  ball 
about  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg.  These  threads  are 
part  "white,  part  yellow,  very  seldom  green,  and  have 
this  peculiarity  that  instead  of  raveling  or  being  tangled 
like  those  of  other  caterpillars,  they  reel  off  easily. 
After  five  days'  spinning,  the  envelope  is  completed  and 
encloses  the  pupa  ;  at  this  time  it  is  necessary,  in  order 
to  reel  the  silk,  to  expose  the  cocoon  to  such  a  degree  of 
heat  as  will  kill  the  animal,  because  if  allowed  to  remain  a 
perfect  insect,  before  leaving  its  cell  it  discharges  ^  sharp 
fluid,  which  injures  the  quality  of  the  silk,  and  prevents 
it  from  beeing  reeled.  The  silk  culture  now  forms  a 
considerable  branch  of  agricultural  industry  in  France 
and  Germany,  and  is  becoming  yearly  of  more  import- 
ance in  the  United  States. 


III. — CREPUSCULARIA. — LEPIDOPTERA. 

The  bodies  are  cylindrical  or  conical ;  antennas  elon- 
gated or  spindle-formed,  straight  or  curved;  proboscis 
mostly  very  long  and  slender ;  wings  either  spread  out 
horizontally  or  roof-like.  Caterpillars,  slightly  hairy ; 
more  frequently  smooth ;  with  or  without  a  horn  ap- 
pended to  the  tail.  Metamorphosis  takes  place  mostly 
in  a  slight  cocoon  on  the  ground,  in  the  pith  of  wood,  or 
in  the  air.  They  fly  in  the  gray  twilight  of  morning  or 
evening. 

1. — THE  HAWK  MOTHS  OR  SPHINXES. 

The  body  cylindrical,  feelers  spread  outwards,  wings 
roof-like  and  brilliantly  colored.  Caterpillar  black, 


IXSECTA.  165 

hairy,  with  eight  pairs  of  short  feet ;  without  the  poste- 
rior horii;  metamorphosis  occurs  sometimes  without  a 
web,  in  the  earth ;  sometimes  in  a  cocoon. 

The  Six  Spot  Eurnet— Hornet  Moth— (zygsena  fili- 
pendulae),  plate  23,  fig.  2.  The  superior  wings  are 
olive-green  with  a  golden  luster,  and  six  blood-red  spots ; 
the  inferior  are  red,  bordered,  on  the  posterior  edges, 
Avith  black.  It  lives  in  the  meadows,  is  not  larger  than 
a  fly;  the  caterpillar  is  pale  yellow,  feeds  on  clover, 
plantain,  etc.,  and  makes  a  yellow  or  gray  cocoon  of 
cylindrical  form,  which  it  fastens  on  the  straw  or  stems 
of  these  plants.  The  nympha,  yellow  in  the  middle,  and 
brown  at  each  end,  at  the  end  of  three  weeks  changes  into 
a  winged  insect. 

The  White  Spot  (zygsena  phegea)  is  larger;  color 
blue,  and  shines  with  a  metallic  coppery  luster ;  white 
spots  on  the  wings,  and  two  orange  rings  on  the  body ; 
lives  in  wooded  meadows  among  flowers.  The  dark 
brown  caterpillar,  with  red  head  and  feet,  appears  in 
July ;  lives  on  sorrel,  plantain,  oak,  and  hazel  leaves ; 
spends  the  winter  in  the  larva  state,  and  changes  to  a 
nympha  in  the  early  spring ;  its  cocoon  is  gray,  the  pupa 
reddish-brown. 


2. — THE  GLASS  WIXGS. 

Body  cylindrical ;  abdomen  terminated  by  a  tassel ; 
antennae  slightly  curved ;  wings  horizontal  and  transpa- 
rent; fly  by  day.  Caterpillar  smooth,  without  the  pos- 
terior horn;  undergoes  the  transitionary  state  in  the 
interior  of  plants. 

The  Bee  Moth  (sesia  apiformis),  plate  23,  fig.  5,  much 
resembles  a  queen  bee ;  is  black,  with  a  yellow  head ; 


166  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  wings  transparent,  with  brown  borders.  The  cater- 
pillar one  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  foul  white,  with  a 
red-brown  head  ;  lives  on  the  poplar,  mostly  near  the 
root ;  undergoes  its  change  in  the  earth,  making  a  cell 
of  sand  and  bits  of  sticks  ;  very  destructive  to  poplars. 

Broad  Bordered  Bee  Hawk  Moth  (sesia  puciformis) 
has  glassy  wings,  changing  from  blue  to  red ;  at  the  base 
olive-green  and  bordered  with  a  band  of  brownish-red ; 
the  body  terminated  by  a  tassel  of  hairs.  The  cater- 
pillar is  yellowish-green  above,  reddish-violet  below,  with 
the  posterior  horn  curved ;  lives  on  dwarf  cherry-trees, 
scabiosa,  etc.,  and  when  ready  for  the  transitionary  state 
makes  a  perforated  web  on  the  ground  and  changes  into 
a  dark  brown  pupa. 

3.— BUZZERS. 

The  bodies  are  hairy,  feelers  straight;  wings  very 
long  and  spread  horizontally ;  flight  quick,  and  attended 
with  a  humming  noise,  as  they  flutter  about  in  the  twi- 
light, extracting  honey  from  flowers  with  their  large  pro- 
bosces.  The  caterpillar  smooth  and  thick,  have  the  pos- 
terior horn ;  their  metamorphosis  is  accomplished  in  the 
earth. 

The  Humming  Bird  Moth — Dove-tail  (sphinx  stel- 
latarum)  may  be  seen  towards  evening  hovering  around' 
flowers,  sucking  their  sweet  juices  with  its  long  trunk  ; 
the  upper  wings  are  gray-brown,  with  three  transverse 
stripes,  the  lower  dull  orange.  The  tail  bearded  and 
forcated.  The  caterpillar  two  inches  long,  red-brown  or 
yellow-green,  dotted  white  below,  with  a  stripe  on  the 
sides ;  lives  on  the  madder  plant,  bed  straw,  etc. ;  under- 
goes its  transformation  in  the  summer,  either  free  or  in 


IXSECTA.  167 

a  very  slight  covering;  the  pupa  at  first  green,  then 
brown,  after  a  period  of  four  weeks,  springs  into  life  a 
butterfly. 

The  Taper  Hawk  Moth  (sphinx  renothera),  body 
and  upper  Avings  grayish-green,  lighter  or  darker,  con- 
nected by  a  buckle-like  process ;  lower  wings  bright 
yellow,  bordered  with  black ;  margins  framed  differently. 
The  caterpillar,  marbled  black  and  yellow,  instead  of  the 
posterior  horn  has  a  yellow  shield ;  may  be  seen  in  July 
hovering  about  the  flame  of  a  candle,  or  over  the  common 
or  water  marigold.  Late  in  autumn  it  changes  to  a  red 
brown  pupa,  in  which  state  it  remains  all  winter. 

The  Lime  Hawk  Moth  (sphinx  tilise).  The  body 
and  strongly  cut  upper  wings  are  pale  green,  olive,  and 
dull  red,  distributed  in  panels;  lower  wings  and  tail- 
tuft  yellow.  The  caterpillar,  green  and  marked  with 
varied  lines  and  dots,  lives  mostly  on  the  lindens ;  some- 
times found  on  willow,  birch,  or  fruit  trees ;  changes 
into  a  brown  pupa,  which  in  the  May  following  is  trans- 
formed into  a  winged  insect. 

The  Evening  Peacock's  Eye — Eyed  Hawk  Moth— 
(sphinx  ocellata)  is  one  of  the  handsomest  butterflies; 
superior  wings  light  brown,  with  three  dark  brown 
transverse  stripes  on  the  posterior  side;  inferior,  rose- 
red,  with  an  eye-shaped  spot  of  blue,  enchased  with 
black  on  each.  When  reposing,  this  butterfly  covers 
the  lower  wings  with  the  upper,  and  much  resembles  a 
withered  leaf.  The  caterpillar  is  yellow-green,  lives  on 
the  willow,  blackthorn,  linden,  etc.  Changes  into  a 
chrysalis  on  the  earth,  Avithout  Aveaving  a  web ;  passes 
the  Avinter  as  a  pupa ;  red-broAvn  below,  black  above,  and 
comes  forth  in  spring  a  butterfly. 

The    Poplar   Hawk   Moth   (sphinx    populi) ;    males 


168  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

gray,  veined  with  ochre  color;  females  reddish-gray, 
with  cinnamon  spots  on  the  inferior  wings ;  all  the  wings 
pectinated  or  toothed.  The  caterpillar,  two  and  a  half 
inches  long,  is  blue-green,  marked  with  yellow;  has  a 
blue  horn ;  lives  on  the  willow,  poplar,  and  aspen ; 
changes  in  August  to  a  pupa,  red-brown  below,  blue- 
black  above ;  remains  all  winter  in  the  nympha  state ; 
makes  its  cell  under  ground,  and  comes  forth  in  the  early 
summer,  perfect. 

Spotted  Elephant  Hawk  Moth  (sphinx  euphorbiae). 
The  fore  wings  are  pale  rose  color,  marked  with  olive ; 
the  hinder,  black,  with  transverse  bands  of  rose  red ;  the 
brilliant-hued  caterpillar,  smooth  and  naked,  lives  on  the 
euphorbia ;  is  remarkable  for  voracity.  It  spins  a  slight 
web,  and  undergoes  its  transition  either  under  the  earth, 
or  among  dry  leaves ;  the  pupa  is  brown,  and  sometimes 
comes  forth  in  the  following  July,  and  at  others  not  until 
the  second  year. 

The  Swift  Wing  (sphinx  celerio),  plate  24,  fig.  6. 
On  the  body  and  upper  wings,  which  run  out  to  a  point, 
brown,  marked  with  lighter  shade,  and  interlined  with 
white;  lower  wings  red,  marked  with  black.  Caterpil- 
lar three  inches  long,  brown,  with  yellow  stripes,  and 
eye-shaped  spots  of  blue  on  the  fourth  and  fifth  rings  of 
the  abdomen ;  lives  on  the  leaves  of  the  grape  vine.  In 
autumn  it  changes  to  a  handsome  red-brown  nympha ; 
remains  all  winter  under  leaves,  and  comes  forth  a  but- 
terfly in  spring ;  it  is  rare ;  two  other  species,  the  Me- 
dium and  Lesser  Swift  Wings,  resemble  it. 

The  Oleander  Moth  (sphinx  nerii)  is  found  in  Italy, 
very  rarely  in  Germany ;  body  beautifully  shaded  into 
rings  of  green  ;  upper  wings  partly  pale  red.  The  cat- 
erpillar, four  inches  long,  is  also  green,  with  one  white 


INSECTA.  169 

stripe  on  the  side ;  on  the  third  segment  of  the  abdomen 
are  two  beautiful  eye-shaped  spots  of  cerulean  blue ; 
feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  rose  bay,  from  the  particles  of 
Avhich  it  also  constructs  its  cocoon.  The  pupa  is  at  first 
sulphur-colored,  afterwards  brown,  and,  after  an  en- 
tombing for  the  space,  of  four  weeks,  comes  forth  in  Octo- 
ber, ready  for  flight. 

Privet  Hawk  Moth  (sphinx  lagustri),  upper  wings 
and  thorax  brown-gray ;  lower  wings  and  abdomen  red, 
with  lines  of  dark  brown.  Caterpillar,  three  inches 
long,  is  green,  with  oblique  bands  of  red  and  white ; 
spotted  yellow  over  the  air  vessel ;  lives  on  the  privet, 
ash,  Jericho  rose,  or  alder  ;  passes  into  the  earth  in  Sep- 
tember, and  undergoes  its  transition  in  a  small  cavity 
spun  over  with  a  few  threads ;  the  chrysalis  is  dark  red- 
dish-brown, and  begins  its  new  existence  in  the  next 
summer. 

The  Unicorn  Hawk  Moth  (sphinx  convolvuli)  is  very 
large ;  brown-gray,  marked  with  blackish  lines ;  has 
transverse  stripes  of  rose-red  on  the  body.  The  pro- 
boscis is  very  large.  These  insects  remain  concealed  in 
the  daytime,  but,  coming  forth  at  night,  fly  noisily 
around.  The  large  Brown  or  green  caterpillar  is  naked, 
and  found  in  cornfields  ;  lives  on  the  leaves  of  the  bird- 
weed.  Keeps  concealed  in  the  earth  during  the  day,  and 
when  ready  for  the  nympha  state,  bury  themselves  deeper. 
The  pupa,  glossy  and  bright  brown,  is  transformed  into 
the  imago  in  four  weeks,  but  frequently  not  until  the 
next  spring. 

The  Deaths  Head  (sphinx  atrophos),  plate  23,  fig. 
13,  is  the  largest  and  handsomest  of  the  sphinxes ;  the 
fore  wings  are  gray,  marked  with  darker  lines,  and  rust- 
colored  spots  ;  the  posterior  wing?  are  of  russet  hue,  with 
8 


170  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

two  irregular  transverse  stripes ;  has  a  remarkable  spot 
on  the  back  of  the  thorax,  resembling  a  death's  head. 
When  handled  it  emits  a  singular  noise,  supposed  to  be 
caused  by  the  rubbing  of  the  palpi  or  feelers  against 
each  other ;  this  sharp  sound,  heard  in  the  intervals  of 
buzzing,  has  been  considered  by  the  superstitious  as  a 
messenger  of  boding  evil.  It  is,  however,  injurious  to 
bee-hives.  Its  large  caterpillar  is  yellow,  with  zigzag 
lines  of  green  and  blue  ;  has  a  horn ;  lives  on  the  jessa- 
mine, potato,  and  leaves  of  the  pear,  etc.  Remains 
closely  concealed  in  the  daytime,  coming  forth  in  the 
dark  only,  when  it  seeks  its  food.  Its  first  change  is  in 
July  or  August,  to  a  dark  red-brown  pupa,  which  in 
September  begins  a  new  life  as  a  perfect  insect. 

IV. — DIURNA — BUTTERFLIES  (Papilla) . 

Body  cylindric,  somewhat  compressed  on  the  sides; 
antennae  clubbed  at  the  points,  either  straight  or  slightly 
arcuate ;  wings  broad  and  elevated,  proboscis  tolerably 
long ;  six  pairs  of  feet,  of  which  sometimes  the  two  fore 
feet  are  shortened.  Caterpillar  somewhat  of  the  milli- 
pede form,  smooth,  or  studded  with  tubercular  promi- 
nences, undergoing  the  transitionary  process  in  the  open 
air,  or  inclosed  in  a  very  slight  cocoon.  This  species 
fly  in  the  daytime  only. 

1. — HESPBRIA. 

Small  butterflies,  known  also  under  the  name  o£  Skip- 
pers ;  the  anterior  wings  somewhat  falcate ;  posterior 
ones  tailed  and  ornamented  on  the  under  side  with  eye- 
shaped  spots;  caterpillars  ovate  or  spindle-shaped; 


INSECTA.  171 

smooth,  and  have  large  heads.  The  chrysalis  hangs 
suspended  horizontally,  or  by  a  thread.  Their  flight  is 
low,  near  the  earth,  or  among  plants. 

The  Broom  Skipper  (hesperia  argus),  or  the  Blue. 
Males  blue,  enchased  with  white ;  under  side  coppery, 
with  white  and  black  spots  on  a  green  ground.  Females 
brown,  lower  wings  ornamented  with  a  row  of  orange- 
colored  spots  |  very  common  in  meadows  and  gardens. 
The  caterpillar,  scutiform  or  shield-shaped,  green,  dotted 
with  white ;  changes  into  a  brown  pupa,  which  in  two  or 
three  weeks  comes  forth  a  living  insect.  Found  in  the 
broom  or  clover. 

The  Beautiful  Argus  (hesperia  bellargus)  is  of  a 
beautiful  light  blue,  bordered  with  white ;  the  under 
side  adorned  Avith  many  eye-shaped  spots,  and  margined 
with  yellow ;  the  upper  wings  ornamented  with  spots  and 
one  curved  line.  Caterpillar  yellow-green,  with  red 
spots  on  the  sides,  and  a  dark  stripe  along  the  back. 
The  pupa  are  at  first  green,  afterwards  brown ;  manner 
of  life  like  the  foregoing. 

The  Little  Arion  (hesperia  arion).  Azure-blue  with 
a  broad  black  band  ;  the  band  of  the  lower  wings  orna- 
mented  with  semi-circular  white  spots,  under  side  with 
eye-shaped  circlets.  Found  in  meadows  in  June  and 
July. 

The  Green  Argus  (hesperia  coridon).  Body  and 
superior  wings  green,  bordered  with  brown ;  brown-gray 
on  the  under  side,  with  brown  spots ;  on  the  lower  are  a 
few  eyes ;  wings  bordered  on  their  margins  with  orange- 
colored  spots.  The  female  is  altogether  brown. 

The  Mallow  Skipper  (hesperia  malvae).  Dark  brown ; 
upper  wings  variegated  with  white ;  under  yellow-brown, 
with  light  and  dark  spots.  The  caterpillar  is  covered 


172  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

with  fine  hairs,  flesh-colored,  with  a  black  and  yellow 
spotted  neck;  common  on  the  June  roses,  among  the 
leaves  of  vr hich  it  spins  an  envelope  ;  changes  to  a  dark 
red-brown  nympha,  issuing  forth  in  July.  The  chrysalis 
of  the  second  generation  remains  all  winter  in  its  cell, 
and  begins  its  existence  in  May. 

The  Comma  (hesperia  comma),  yellow-brown,  with 
one  light  and  one  dark  spot,  resembles  a  comma  on  the 
upper  wings.  The  under  side  light  brown,  the  lower 
wings  dull  green.  The  caterpillar,  dull  green,  is  found 
on  pease-straw — called  also  Pearl  Skipper. 

The  Fire  Bird  (hesperia  virgaurese)  is  flame-colored 
and  black,  wing-borders  serrated  ;  under  side  yellow  and 
brown,  sprinkled  with  white  and  black  dots.  Found  in 
wooded  or  hilly  meadows  in  July  or  August.  The  dark 
green  caterpillar  lives  on  the  wood  sorrel  and  golden 
rod. 

The  Black  Gold  Bird  or  Ground  Skipper  (hesperia 
phleas).  Upper  wings  brilliant  flame  color  with  a  broad 
margin  of  black  and  spots  of  the  same  color ;  lower  wings 
dark  brown,  with  a  shorter  stripe  of  flame  color.  Under 
side  yellow,  with  eye-shaped  spots  and  dotted  with  black. 
Found  in  summer  in  thinly-wooded  places.  Also  called 
Small  Copper  Moth. 

The  Ducat  Skipper  (hesperia  hippothoe).  Flame- 
colored  with  a  golden  shimmer ;  on  each  of  the  upper 
wings  one  dark  spot,  all  four  enchased  with  black  and 
edged  with  white.  Under  side  gray,  with  eye- shaped 
spots  of  white  ;  the  lower  wings  adorned  with  hair  lines 
of  red.  Lives  in  margin  of  woods. 

The  Kidney  Spot  (hesperia  betulae),  plate  23,  fig.  15. 
Dark  brown,  edged  with  white  ;  on  the  upper  wings  is  a 
large  kidney-shaped  spot  of  orange  color  :  the  posterior 


INSECTA.  173 

wings  end  in  two  short  orange-colored  flaps.  Lower 
side  ochre  color  with  brown  bands  enclosed  with  borders 
of  white.  The  green,  yellow-striped  shield-shaped  cater- 
pillar lives  on  plum,  thorn,  and  cherry  trees ;  changes 
into  a  pale  red-brown  chrysalis,  which  in  fourteen  days 
again  begins  a  new  existence  as  a  butterfly. 

| 

2. — FLUTTERERS. 

Butterflies  of  middle  size.  Wings  unicolor  or  varie- 
gated, sometimes  transparent  and  bordered,  and  again 
dentated  or  abrupt.  Their  flight  is  at  a  medium  height 
and  with  a  fluttering  movement.  Their  fore  legs  are  often 
shorter  than  the  hinder.  Caterpillar  cylindrical,  smooth, 
or  spinous,  occasionally,  though  rarely,  hirsute.  They 
seldom  make  a  web  ;  the  chrysalis  hangs  either  in  a 
girdle  horizontally  or  suspended  by  the  tail,  head  down- 
wards. 

The  Sand  Eye  (tachyptera  janira),  pale  brown  upper 
wings,  with  a  field  of  orange-brown,  adorned  with  one 
black  eye  ;  under  wings  with  a  light  band.  The  under 
side  orange-brown,  yellow-brown  on  the  borders,  with 
black  eyes.  Caterpillar  green,  slightly  hairy,  with  a 
white  stripe  on  the  sides ;  lives  on  reed  grass,  passes  the 
winter  without  changing  ;  becomes  a  chrysalis,  yellow- 
green,  striped  with  black  in  the  next  June  ;  three  weeks 
afterwards  it  is  on  the  wing.  Very  common  in  meadows 
bordering  on  forests. 

The  Hermit  (tachyptera  hermyone  major),  brown  with 
a  broad  white  band,  in  which  a  black  eye-shaped  spot 
appears  on  both  outer  and  inner  surface  of  wings ;  the 
under  side  is  watered.  Inhabits  dry,  stony  places  in 
woods.  Caterpillar  resembles  the  foregoing. 


174  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  Large  Tree  Whiting  (tachyptera  cratsegi)  is 
white,  ribhed  with  black,  and  in  Germany  may  be  seen 
in  thousands  in  damp  roads  and  paths,  reposing  in  a  kind 
of  benumbed  state,  when  they  are  easily  taken.  The 
hairy  caterpillar  is  gray  below,  yellowish  above,  banded 
with  bright  orange ;  measures  one  inch  and  a  half,  is 
very  injurious  to  fruit  trees,  on  which  it  lives ;  remains 
all  winter  without  changing;  becomes  a  pupa  in  the 
spring  ;  the  chrysalis  is  of  a  yellow-white  color,  marked 
beautifully  with  black ;  begins  its  winged  life  in  July. 
The  eggs,  numbering  from  one  to  two  hundred,  are  de- 
posited on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves. 

The  Large  Cabbage  Butterfly  (tachyptera  brassicae) 
is  yellow,  with  falcated  upper  wings,  bordered  with  black, 
the  female  differs  in  having  two  black  spots  on  the  same. 
Caterpillar  one  inch  and  a  half  long,  marked  with  gray 
and  yellow,  is  very  hurtful  to  vegetables ;  changes  to  a 
yellow-green,  black-spotted  pupa,  which,  for  fourteen 
days,  hangs  suspended  on  the  twigs  of  a  hedge,  after 
which,  the  transitionary  process  accomplished,  it  flies 
forth.  The  eggs  are  yellow  and  found  on  cabbages  ;  the 
second  generation  remains  in  the  caterpillar  state  all 
winter. 

The  Aurora  (tachyptera  aurora).  The  inner  surface 
of  the  superior  wings  yellow-white,  the  outer  bright 
orange  with  black  edges,  lower  wings  irregularly  spotted. 
The  large  green  caterpillar,  whitish  below,  and  measur- 
ing one  inch  and  a  half;  lives  on  wild  cabbage,  meadow- 
cresses  or  the  gilliflower,  and  undergoes  its  transforma- 
tion into  a  pupa,  green,  and  striped  on  the  sides  with 
yellow,  which  hangs  suspended  perpendicularly  on  the 
stems  of  plants. 

The  Silver  Point  (tachyptera  edusa)  or  the  Golden  O, 


IN  SECT  A.  175 

sulphur  color,  the  margins  of  the  upper  wings  are  edged 
•with  borders  of  black,  speckled  with  white ;  on  each  of 
the  lower  wings  is  one  round  yellow  spot,  which,  on  the 
darker  under  side,  has  a  silvery  luster.  Found  in  June 
and  July  on  the  flowers  of  wooded  meadows. 

The  Chess  Board  (tachyptera  galathea).  Yellow- 
white  with  general  markings  disposed  like  the  squares  of 
a  chess  board  on  the  wings ;  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
under  wings  are  a  few  eye-shaped  spots,  which  are 
brighter  in  the  larger  sized  female.  Caterpillar  one 
inch  long,  yellow-green  with  a  red  head ;  lives  on  mea- 
dow-clover, etc.,  and  changes  into  a  yellowish-gray 
pupa,  from  which,  in  the  summer,  is  produced  the  per- 
fect insect. 

The  Wood  Argus  (tachyptera  segeria).  Ground  color 
of  the  wings  reddish-brown ;  all  four  adorned  with  yellow 
spots  and  flame  colored  rings  ;  on  the  under  side  marked 
with  one  line  of  yellow  and  red-brown.  The  caterpillar, 
green,  and  striped  with  white,  appears  in  May,  and 
changes  in  August  to  a  short,  thick  green  or  yellow- 
brown  pupa,  which,  suspended  by  the  tail,  hangs  head 
downwards.  Common  in  fields  bordered  by  woods. 

The  Gold  Spotted  Flutterer  (tachyptera  cynthia), 
Vanessa,  is  dark  brown,  with  many  yellow-  spots  on  both 
wings ;  body  black ;  under  surfaces  red  brown,  spotted 
and  banded  with  yellow.  Caterpillar  also  yellow ;  brown 
head  and  longitudinal  stripes  of  black ;  lives  on  the  sheep 
sorrel ;  changes  in  May  to  a  pale  yellow  pupa,  marked 
with  black,  from  which  the  butterfly  makes  its  appearance 
in  June.  Inhabits  open  spaces  in  woods. 

The  Large  Mother  of  Pearl  Bird  (tachyptera  aglaia) 
is  orange  color,  with  hieroglyphic  marks  in  black  on  all 
the  wings ;  the  under  surface  of  the  posterior  wings 


176  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

green  colored,  with  large  spots  resembling  mother  of 
pearl.  Caterpillar  one  inch  and  a  half  long  ;  dark  gray, 
speckled  with  orange,  and  covered  with  long  spines ; 
lives  upon  the  violet ;  changes  in  June  to  a  pendulous 
red-brown  nymph  a,  from  which,  in  fourteen  days,  issues 
a  gaudy  butterfly. 

The  Silver  Line  (tachyptera  paphia)  much  resembles 
the  foregoing,  differing  only  that  instead  of  pearl-like 
spots,  the  wings  are  marked  with  silvery  lines.  Cater- 
pillar yellQW-brown  ;  habits  and  food  the  same  as  above. 
The  C  Bwd  (tachyptera  C  album),  Vanessa.  Wings 
dark  brown,  strong,  and  unequally  cut ;  are  black,  edged 
with  white,  and  speckled  black  ;  in  the  middle  of  the  pale 
brown-gray  under-wings  is  a  white  figure  said  to  resemble 
the  letter  C,  but  in  reality  its  shape  is  rather  that  of  a 
V.  Caterpillar  yellow-brown,  and  spiny;  lives  on  the 
hop,  elm,  nettle,  etc. ;  changes  in  June  to  a  yellowish- 
red  and  gold-speckled  chrysalis,  which,  after  fourteen 
days,  is  transformed  into  a  butterfly. 

The  Little  Fox — Small  Tortoise  Shell — (tachyptera 
urticse).  Reddish-yellow  wings,  with  large  spots  of 
black ;  outside  margins  yellow ;  inner  borders  black, 
speckled  with  blue  ;  under  surfaces  grayish-brown,  bor- 
dered with  lighter  shades  of  the  same.  Caterpillar  one 
inch  and  a  half  long,  spiny,  and  variously  colored.  Is 
found  from  spring  to  autumn  upon  nettles,  and  sus- 
pended from  the  twigs  of  hedges  ;  changes  into  a  chrysalis 
resembling  the  above  described  ;  after  fourteen  days  the 
butterfly  appears. 

The  Large  Fox — Large  Tortoise  Shell — (tachyptera 
polychlorus)  greatly  resembles  the  above,  but  is  larger  and 
handsomer.  Caterpillar  mostly  black.  Lives  in  great 


INSECTA.  177 

numbers  on  the  elm,  willow,  sour  cherry,  and  other  fruit 
trees. 

The  Mourning  Mantle  (tachyptera  antiopa)  is  reddish- 
black,  velvety,  bordered  with  yellow-white  ;  ground  color 
of  wings  black,  adorned  with  large  blue  spots.  As  soon 
as  escaped  from  the  cocoon,  these  butterflies  discharge  a 
reddish  colored  fluid,  which  the  superstitious  call  blood 
rain.  The  caterpillars  are  blue-black,  spotted  with  flame 
color ;  live  in  societies,  on  the  aspen,  birch,  and  willow ; 
change  into  a  pupa  gray-brown  spotted  with  red ;  in  four- 
teen days  the  perfect  insect  is  developed. 

The  Thistle  Bird — Painted  Lady — (tachyptera  car- 
dui),  plate  24,  fig.  8,  is  beautifully  marked  with  angular 
and  circular  spots  of  brown  and  orange;  the  under  side, 
still  more  beautiful,  is  adorned  with  a  network  of  lines 
and  eye-shaped  figures.  The  caterpillar,  one  inch  and  a 
half  long,  grayish-yellow,  and  covered  with  spines,  lives 
upon  burdock,  artichokes,  and  nettles ;  grows  very  fast ; 
changes  into  a  dull  yellow,  gold-dotted  chrysalis ;  the 
butterfly  comes  forth  in  July,  being  perfected  in  fourteen 
days. 

The  Red  Admiral  (tachyptera  atalanta),  plate  23,  fig. 
12,  is  velvety-black,  with  transverse  stripes  of  brilliant 
scarlet,  and  white  and  blue  dots  on  the  superior  wings ; 
inferior,  also  black,  are  bordered  with  scarlet.  The  cat- 
erpillar, black  and  spiny,  striped  with  'bright  yellow, 
lives  on  the  nettle. 

The  Peacock — D'mrna — (tachyptera  io).  The  wings 
are  indented,  or  cut  out  on  the  edges ;  superior  pair,  fine 
red-brown,  bordered  on  the  sides  with  a  darker  shade ; 
on  the  anterior  margin,  marked  yellow  and  black  5  lower 
wings  dark  red-brown,  and  adorned  with  an  eye-like 
spot,  mottled  blue  and  black,  standing  handsomely  forth 
8* 


ITS  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

on  a  lighter  ground.  The  caterpillar,  thorny  ;  black, 
dotted  with  white ;  lives  in  societies,  on  nettles,  during 
the  whole  summer ;  changes  into  a  pupa,  pale  green,  and 
covered  with  conical  yellow  tubercles,  which,  after  a 
space  of  two  or  three  weeks,  produces  a  butterfly. 

The  White  Admiral  (tachyptera  sybilla).  The  male 
is  brown  or  blue-black  ;  female  of  a  beautiful  dark  brown- 
red  color,  with  a  white  band  on  all  the  wings ;  the  under 
sides  mottled.  The  caterpillar,  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
long,  with  a  red  head  and  tuberculated  body,  lives  on 
the  honey-suckle  and  dwarf-cherry  ;  changes  into  a  brown, 
yellow-striped,  spiny  pupa,  which,  in  fourteen  days,  de- 
velops a  butterfly. 

The  Little  Ice  Bird  (tachyptera  tremulae),  is  brown 
and  blue-gray,  with  spots  and  rings  of  cardamine  and 
white.  Caterpillar,  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  clothed  with 
stiff  hairs  and  spiny  tubercles,  lives  on  the  quaking  pop- 
lar, and  in  July  changes  to  a  brown  chrysalis,  dotted 
with  black.  The  imago  is  developed  after  three  weeks. 

The  Great  Ice  Bird  (tachyptera  populi).  Beautiful 
dark  brown  color,  with  penetrating,  regularly-placed 
spots  of  white  and  orange- colored  markings  towards  the 
border;  lower  side  reddish-yellow.  Caterpillar,  two 
inches  long,  variegated  ;  head  forked,  tinted  red-brown 
and  black ;  body  furnished  with  conical  hairy  tubercles  ; 
lives  singly,  on  the  trembling  poplar,  throughout  the 
winter ;  in  May  changes  into  a  yellow,  black-spotted, 
thorny  pupa,  from  which  the  butterfly  is  developed  in 
June. 

The  Wood  Emperor —  Changeable — (tachyptera  iris). 
The  dark  brown  wings,  which,  in  the  male,  have  a  change- 
able lustrous  reflection  of  blue,  are  marked  with  spots  of 
white  and  eye-like  figures  of  red,  which  penetrate  to  the 


INSECTA.  179 

variegated  lower  surface.  The  caterpillar,  one  inch  and 
a  half  in  length,  is  forked  at  the  posterior  extremity,  and 
has,  on  the  head,  two  branching  horns.  Proceeding 
from  the  egg  in  late  autumn,  it  lives,  during  the  winter, 
on  the  beech,  willow,  aspen,  and  ash,  and  changes  in  June 
into  a  yellowish,  tuberculated  pupa,  which,  after  hang- 
ing suspended,  head  downwards,  for  two  weeks,  is  trans- 
formed into  a  living  insect. 

The  Apollo  (tachyptera  apollo),  plate  24,  fig.  4.  Is 
one  of  the  handsomest  and  rarest  of  the  butterfly  race. 
Produced  in  mountain  regions.  The  body  is  blackish ; 
wings,  yellowish- white,  partially  transparent,  with  large 
black  figures ;  inferior  pair,  ornamented  with  eye-like 
spots,  which,  white  in  the  middle,  are  vitreous,  and  show 
distinctly  on  the  under  side ;  are  enchased  with  settings 
of  red  and  black.  The  finely-haired  caterpillar  is  vel- 
vety black,  spotted  with  orange  and  speckled  with  blue ; 
lives  mostly  on  the  houseleek ;  makes  a  slight  cocoon,  in 
which  it  is  transformed  to  a  chrysalis,  at  first  yellow- 
green,  but  afterwards  brown,  that  after  a  period  of  six 
weeks,  comes  forth  a  butterfly. 


3 . — AERONAUTS. 

Large  butterflies,  with  wings  often  partially  transpar- 
ent; posterior  wings  mostly  one-forked.  Their  flight  is 
high,  with  a  graceful  sailing  motion,  only  varied  by  an 
occasional  stroke  of  the  wings,  which,  stronger  than 
those  of  the  other  Diurnse,  enable  them  to  maintain  a 
more  continuous  and  steady  flight.  The  wings  of  tlie 
^Eronauts  differ  from  those  of  all  the  other  Diurnae, 
being  capable  of  greater  expanse,  and  admitting  of  freer 
action  to  the  body.  The  caterpillar,  thicker  in  the  mid- 


180  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

die  than  at  the  extremities,  is  tuberculated.  The  chrys- 
alis hangs  horizontally  or  perpendicularly ;  in  the  first 
case,  by  a  girdle  round  the  body,  in  the  latter,  suspended 
by  a  thread.  The  largest  and  handsomest  are  natives  o/ 
the  torrid  zone. 

The  Swallow- Tailed  Butterfly  (aeronaut  machaon), 
plate  23,  fig.  6.  Yellow,  striped,  and  dotted  with  black  ; 
blue  spots  on  the  under  wings ;  found  everywhere  in 
Europe.  Caterpillar,  two  inches  and  a  half  long,  is 
smooth  blue-green,  with  markings  of  black ;  lives  on 
celery,  parsley,  fennel,  etc.,  and  has  two  flesh-colored 
filaments  on  the  back  of  the  neck,  which  can  be  extended 
like  feelers  at  will.  This  butterfly  may  be  often  seen 
resting  on  damp  earth,  from  which  it  extracts  water. 
The  pupa  is  yellow,  and  hangs  horizontally  suspended  by 
a  girdle,  from  which  it  is  sometimes  termed  the  girdle 
worm.  Resembling  the  Machaon  is 

The  Surinam  Page  (seronautaLeilus),  plate  24,  fig. 
7,  except  that  it  is  green  where  the  former  is  yellow  ; 
the  projecting  points  of  the  hinder  wings  are  longer ;  the 
green  caterpillar  lives  on  the  shaddock  trees,  and  is  trans- 
formed into  a  white  and  black  spotted  pupa,  remains  four- 
teen days,  and  then  comes  forth  a  butterfly. 

The  Sailor  or  Papilio  Proper  (seronauta  podalyrius) 
is  sulphur  color,  with  longitudinal  black  stripes  and  long 
spurs  on  the  hinder  wings.  The  larva  is  green,  dotted 
with  red,  moves  slowly,  stretches  forth  two  yellow  horns 
which  emit  a  disagreeable  odor ;  is  found  on  the  plum 
and  black  thorn.  The  pupa  is  grayish-yellow.  The 
handsomest  butterflies  belonging  to  this  species  come 
from  the  East  Indies  and  South  America ;  of  these  per- 
haps, the  first  is 

The  AcMUcs  (aeronauta  achilles)  which  has  dark  brown 


INSECTA.  181 

indented  wings,  banded  transversely  -with  blue.    Caterpil- 
lar four  inches  long. 

The  Ulysses  (aeronauta  ulysses),  with  black-tailed 
wings,  middle  space  lustrous  blue,  seven  vitreous  spots 
on  the  posterior  edges.  This  family  of  butterflies  has 
been  divided  into  two  races,  namely,  Greeks  and  Trojans, 
the  latter  distinguished  by  the  red  spots  on  the  breast. 


FIFTH    ORDER. 
HYMENOPTERA.—  BEES    AND    GNATS. 

Bees  and  gnats  are  distinguished  from  other  insects  by 
having  membraneous  wings  ;  the  former  possessing  four, 
the  latter  but  two,  the  hinder  ones  being  only  rudimen- 
tary. The  families  belonging  to  the  bee  tribe  are  remark- 
able for  mostly  living  in  social  communities,  where  they 
maintain  a  systematic  form  of  government.  In  these 
societies  the  imperfectly-developed  insects  are  not  the 
servitors  as  in  the  ant  realms,  but  are  perfectly  devel- 
oped, although  belonging  to  neither  sex,  and  called  work- 
ers. The  first  of  this  race  is 

The  Honey  Bee  (apis  mellifica),  about  half  an  inch 
long,  dark  brown,  body  overgrown  with  fine  hairs,  by 
which  it  collects  the  pollen  of  flowers.  These  useful 
insects  are  furnished  with  four  transparent  wings,  which 
enable  them  to  fly  rapidly ;  their  heads  are  tolerably 
large,  and  provided  with  a  trunk  or  proboscis,  which 
they  thrust  into  the  nectaries  of  flowers  to  extract  their 
sweet,  adhesive  juices,  and  elaborate  into  honey.  The 
sting,  situated  at  the  extremity  of  the  abdomen,  is 
barbed,  hollow,  and  connected  with  a  small  sac  in  the 
interior  of  the  body,  which  is  filled  with  an  acrimonious 


182  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

fluid.  The  queen  is  easily  recognized  by  her  superior 
size,  and  the  males  or  drones  by  the  absence  of  the  sting. 
The  honey  bees  establish  their  dwellings  either  in  a  pre- 
pared hive  or  some  cavity,  such  as  are  found  in  hollow 
trees,  etc. ;  these  are  skillfully  arranged,  and  it  is  a  most 
interesting  sight  to  watch  a  young  swarm  beginning  to 
found  a  new  colony.  One  company  of  workers  prepare 
the  interior  of  their  future  dwelling  by  clearing  off  all 
incumbrances,  another  collects  materials,  such  as  wax  or 
gluey  substances,  filling  up  the  crevices  so  as  to  exclude 
damp  air  or  prevent  the  intrusion  of  foes ;  this  being 
finished,  they  begin  the  construction  of  their  combs. 
These,  composed  of  hexagon-shaped  cells,  formed  of  wax, 
constituting  a  series  of  little  cups,  regularly  placed  in  rows, 
and  called  honeycomb,  are  so  thin  that  three  or  four  of 
these  laminae,  laid  together,  are  hardly  as  thick  as  com- 
mon paper.  Every  mass  of  comb  is  an  inch  thick,  and 
the  interval  or  space  allowed  between  them,  admits  the 
passage  of  two  bees  abreast.  There  is  never  but  one 
queen  in  a  hive,  the  mother  of  the  whole  stock ;  her  only 
task  is  to  lay  eggs  in  such  numbers  as  is  not  only  suffi- 
cient to  keep  up  the  population  of  the  community,  but 
to  send  forth  a  new  colony  annually. 

The  workers  are  said  to  be  imperfectly  developed 
females,  and  form  the  basis  of  the  commonwealth.  Fly- 
ing over  the  fields,  apparently  in  search  of  pleasure, 
they  are,  nevertheless,  usefully  employed,  and  with  unre- 
mitting industry  extract  sweet  juices  from  the  cups  of 
flowers,  which  serve  partly  for  their  own  nourishment, 
but  more  especially  for  the  future  sustenance  of  the 
young  larvae.  On  returning  home  thus  laden,  they  deposit 
the  greater  portion  of  their  store  within  the  magazine 
cells,  retaining  only  so  much  as  satisfies  their  present 


INSECTA.  183 

hunger.  If  examined  on  its  way  back  to  the  hive,  the 
little  laborer  will  be  found  to  have  in  the  cavity  of  each 
thigh  two  little  pellets  resembling  peas ;  this,  kneaded 
into  its  present  form  by  its  legs,  is  called  bee-bread,  and 
formed  from  the  pollen  of  flowers,  in  which  the  little 
creature  rolls  itself,  is  the  food  of  the  young.  The 
workers,  whose  task  it  is  also  to  prepare  the  wax,  retain 
the  sweet  fluid  they  have  sucked  in  their  honey  bag ; 
this  reservoir,  transparent  and  about  the  size  of  a  small 
pea,  is  emptied  at  once  on  their  return ;  the  wax  also  is 
transuded  from  between  the  rings  of  the  abdomen.  They 
do  more,  however,  than  collect  bee-bread  and  honey  for 
sustenance  or  knead  wax  for  the  forming  of  combs  ;  they 
are  the  guardians  of  the  hive  and  attendants  of  the  queen. 
They  cluster  around  her,  defend  the  community  against 
enemies  of  all  kinds,  feed  the  young  larvae,  and  procure 
fresh  air  for  the  hive  by  beating  with  their  wings.  In 
short,  industrious  and  indefatigable  in  discharge  of  their 
duties,  these  unselfish  members  of  the  little  community 
seem  to  allow  themselves  no  rest.  Their  lives  are  short, 
seldom  living  over  eight  months ;  subject  to  many  dangers, 
such  as  being  devoured  by  birds  or  beaten  down  by  storms 
of  wind  and  rain ;  as  they  wander  far  from  home,  they 
are  often  killed.  The  queen  may  live  several  years,  but 
the  drones,  the  reverse  of  the  workers,  being  lazy  as  the 
others  are  industrious,  caring  nothing  for  the  prosperity 
of  the  hive,  and  going  forth  on  warm  days  only,  not  to 
collect  stores  for  the  general  good  but  barely  to  attend 
upon  the  queen,  are  very  short-lived,  and  if  their  exist- 
ence is  prolonged  to  August,  they  are  killed  by  the 
working  bees.  These  massacres  are  described  as  most 
furious  and  sanguinary.  Thrusting  their  stings  into  the 
bodies  of  the  defenseless  drones  or  biting  off  their  wings, 


184  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

they  kill  or  thrust  them  out  of  the  hive,  where  they 
perish  miserably. 

The  queen  deposits  one  egg  in  every  cell ;  the  little 
larvae  appear  soon  after,  and  are  carefully  tended  by  the 
nursing  bees ;  as  soon  as  fully  grown  and  they  pass  into 
the  pupa  state,  these  affectionate  laborers  close  up  the 
cell  with  wax,  and  when  the  imago  has  come  forth,  which 
it  does  slowly,  by  eating  the  covering  of  the  cell,  they 
clear  away  the  rubbish. 

The  queen  bees  have  a  natural  animosity  against  each 
other :  if  two  are  in  the  same  hive  at  once,  a  furious 
combat  ensues,  which  continues  until  one  is  vanquished, 
or  the  community  separate  into  two  parties,  each  having 
its  queen.  But  as  this  double  rule  can  not  be  tolerated 
in  one  hive,  one  party  must  emigrate  to  found  a  new  col- 
ony 5  this  movement  is  called  swarming.  This  commo- 
tion always  takes  place  when  there  is  a  prospect  of  a  new 
queen  being  produced  from  the  maturing  chrysalis;  the 
old  one  seeks  a  new  dwelling-place.  Her  satellites  sally 
forth  first,  and  having  found  a  suitable  spot  whereon  to 
found  their  new  realm,  the  queen,  on  a  fine  sunny  day, 
flies  out  from  the  hive  followed  by  her  faithful  adher- 
ents. The  place  chosen  for  settling  is  usually  the  branch 
of  a  tree,  or  some  other  projecting  body,  where  the  royal 
bee  alights,  and  the  others  cluster  around  her  in  a  hang- 
ing mass,  resembling  a  large  bunch  of  grapes.  If  the 
queen  is  removed  from  among  the  rest,  and  placed  in  a 
new  hive,  it  is  fairly  evident  that  the  whole  swarm  will 
follow  her,  making  it  also  their  dwelling ;  but  if  the 
capture  is  not  successful,  or  the  swarm  is  left  unmolested, 
they  follow  their  queen  to  a  hollow  tree  or  clefted  rock, 
where  they  construct  a  new  home.  When  in  danger  of 
going  off  thus,  they  are  frequently  made  to  settle  by 


INSECTA.  185 

beating  on  some  metallic  substance,  or  sprinkling  the 
swarm  with  a  few  drops  of  water  from  a  watering  pot ; 
it  is  supposed  that  the  same  instinct  which  warns  them 
against  thunder  and  rain,  induces  them  to  obey  this 
admonition. 

Hive  bees  have  many  enemies ;  beside  the  common 
insect  foes,  wasps,  mice,  wax-moths,  and  the  death's- 
head  butterfly  pursue  them  constantly.  Resembling 
them  are 

The  Humble  Bees  (bombus),  which  are  thick,  hairy 
insects,  making  their  nests  in  holes  in  the  earth,  under 
moss,  etc.  These  are,  however,  not  constructed  with  the 
same  neat  and  artistic  skill  as  those  of  the.  honey  bees, 
nevertheless,  they  collect  honey  and  wax  in  the  same 
manner,  and  cherish  the  young  larvae  as  carefully. 

The  Common  Wusp  (vespa  vulgaris)  is  of  a  citron 
color,  marked  with  black ;  one  inch  long,  and  makes  a 
nest  in  the  earth,  or  among  hedges — mostly  the  former 
— in  which  some  cavity  about  as  large  in  circumference 
as  a  common  nine-pin  ball,  is  chosen  for  the  foundation 
of  a  kind  of  city,  in  which  are  large  spaces  that  may  be 
likened  to  streefs,  and  the  combs  to  houses,  all  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall,  in  its  texture  resembling  paper.  The 
method  of  fabricating  this  material  is  as  follows :  they 
detach  particles  of  old  wood  or  bark  with  their  mandibles, 
reduce  and  moisten  them  to  the  consistence  of  a  kind  of 
paste;  this  rolled  into  a  ball,  they  carry  home  and  use 
in  the  construction  of  their  nests.  They  have  several 
queens,  which  dwell  together  in  amity ;  live  on  sweet 
fruits,  and  animal  substances,  and  are  bold  and  rapacious 
robbers ;  nevertheless  they  are  very  tender  to,  and  care- 
ful of  their  young,  carrying  most  of  their  booty  home  to 
distribute  to  the  larvae.  The  wounds  caused  by  their 


186  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

stings  are  very  painful ;  the  best  remedy  against  bad 
effects  is  to  wash  the  injured  part  with  a  solution  of 
hartshorn  and  water. 

The  Pasteboard  Wasp  (vespa  chartaria)  is  smaller 
than  the  common  wasp,  dark  brown,  with  five  yellow 
seams  on  the  abdomen.  Found  in  South  America, 
where  it  is  much  feared  on  account  of  its  severe  sting. 
Its  manner  of  building  is  altogether  remarkable.  It 
makes  a  large  nest  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone, 
somewhat  resembling  a  long  bell,  and  composed  of  a 
substance  like  beautiful  white  cardboard.  The  interior 
is  partitioned  off  into  numerous  passages  with  the  same 
material,  the  several  openings  of  which  connect  with  the 
cells,  which  are  appended  to  shelves,  ranged  along  the 
walls. 

The  Hornets  (vespa  crabro),  plate  28,  fig.  8,  mostly 
make  their  nests  in  holes  of  trees,  which  they  enlarge  by 
boring  with  their  strong  mandibles ;  are  almost  as  large 
again  as  the  wasp,  which  they  resemble  in  form  and 
color.  Not  quarrelsome,  they  seldom  attack  unless  pro- 
voked ;  their  sting  is  said  to  be  dangerous  in  hot  weath- 
er; and  it  is  also  asserted  as  a  fact  that  "horses  have  been 
killed  by  the  assault  of  a  troop  of  hornets ;  some,  indeed, 
declare  that  nine  of  these  insects  are  sufficient  for  effect- 
ing such  a  catastrophe ;  this,  however,  is  not  true. 

Not  less  remarkable  in  manner,  habits,  or  industry,  are 

THE  AXTS  (Formica;, 

Of  which  there  are  several  races.  Like  the  bees,  they 
are  divided  into  workers,  males  and  females,  differing, 
however,  in  one  respect,  namely,  that  instead  of  one 
female  only  presiding  in  an  anthill,  there  are  several. 


IN3ECTA.  1ST 

Males  and  females,  for  a  time,  have  wings ;  the  neuters, 
or  workers,  are  without  these  appendages.  Ants  do  not 
lay  up  any  winter  stores,  as  they  pass  that  season  in  a 
dormant  state,  but  provide  daily  sustenance  with  indefat- 
igable industry.  They  construct  their  habitation  with 
tolerable  regularity,  forming  cells  and  galleries  in  the 
interior,  covering  the  whole  with  earth.  Many  have 
stings,  with  which  they  wound  severely,  and  all  have 
the  power  of  spurting  forth  an  acrid,  pungent  liquor,  se- 
creted by  their  bodies,  which,  lighting  upon  the  skin, 
inflames  it.  They  feed  on  sweet  fruits,  seize  insects,  and 
also  prey  upon  dead  carcasses.  Considering  the  aphides 
in  the  relation  of  milch  cows,  they  never  injure  their 
bodies,  but  only  suck  the  sweet  fluids  that  exude  from 
them.  The  dwelling-place  or  receptacle  for  the  eggs  and 
larvee  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  hill,  the  interior  of 
which  is  traversed  by  passages  leading  to  chambers. 
Most  of  the  community  are  employed  in  carrying  small 
bits  of  sticks  or  pine  needles,  etc.,  which  they  intermix 
with  the  earth  that  forms  the  principal  material  for  their 
dwelling.  They  make  regular  journeys  from  the  ant- 
hill to  spots  in  the  neighborhood,  always  performing  them 
in  companies ;  it  has  been  remarked  that  on  their  going 
forth  a  regular  radiated  line  of  march  is  always  observed. 
The  eggs,  small  and  milk-white,  are  carefully  tended  by 
the  workers,  who,  in  order  to  keep  them  damp,  moisten 
them  by  licking  them  over  with  a  kind  of  saliva ;  thus 
they  increase  in  size,  until,  in  due  time,  the  grub  comes 
forth.  This  new  subject,  in  its  turn,  demands  the  care 
of  these  affectionate  laborers;  as  soon  as  the  sun  shines 
warmly,  the  young  larvae  is  carried  forth  and  fed  on 
sweet  juices,  receiving  this  care  until  at  length  it  reaches 
the  transitionary  stage,  and  becomes  that  species  of  pupa, 


188  XATURAL   HISTORY. 

which,  known  as  the  ant-eyg,  is  given  as  food  to  caged 
birds.  Nevertheless  it  still  remains  the  charge  of  the 
faithful  workers ;  they  continue  to  bring  it  forth  to  be 
warmed  in  the  sunshine  ;  they  carry  it  back  when  cloudy 
to  the  sheltering  anthill.  When  ready  to  throw  off  its 
enveloping  case,  they  perforate  it  with  their  mandibles 
at  one  end,  assist  in  freeing  the  young  ant  from  its  tram- 
mels, and,  this  accomplished,  lead  the  young  stranger 
through  all  the  labyrinths  of  the  dwelling. 

The  males  and  females  never  work ;  as  soon  as  they 
have  sufficient  strength,  they  swarm  like  bees,  and,  for- 
saking the  home  of  their  nativity,  fly  off  in  hundreds  to 
delight  themselves  in  the  air.  After  this  swarming,  the 
males  disperse  and  perish ;  the  females  throw,  or  suffer 
the  workers  to  tear,  off  their  wings,  and  having  arranged 
a  new  habitation,  begin  to  lay  eggs. 

If  closely  observed  during  their  busy  movements,  it 
will  be  seen  that  ants  have  a  language  of  dumb  signs, 
the  organs  of  which  are  the  antennre  with  which  they 
touch  each  other,  whenever  they  meet.  If  a  company 
of  ants  are  disturbed  at  a  distance  from  their  dwelling, 
they  become  very  uneasy ;  some  run  to  the  anthill,  and 
all  hasten  to  escape,  but  at  the  same  time  taking  care  to 
save  the  larvse  and  pupae. 

If  one  discovers  a  lump  of  sugar,  intelligence  is  at 
once  communicated  to  the  nearest  neighbor,  and  thus 
passed  on  throughout  the  party;  in  a  short  time  the 
sweet  mass  will  be  covered  with  a  cluster  of  ants,  although 
by  no  means  lying  in  their  accustomed  path.  Should 
their  anthill  be  located  in  a  place  too  much  shaded,  or  in 
the  neighborhood  of  enemies,  they  emigrate  in  large 
numbers,  and  as  soon  as  a  suitable  spot  is  selected,  pre- 
pare to  make  a  new  horns,  to  which  they  carry  the  larvae 


INSECTA.  189 

and  nymphae.  Although,  for  the  most  part,  ants  live  in 
great  amity  and  concord  together,  furious  contests  some- 
times ensue,  in  which  they  kilf  each  other ;  their  weap- 
ons are  their  stings,  or  those  who  have  no  stings  use 
their  mandibles.  With  the  latter  they  first  inflict  the 
wound  and  afterwards  spurt  the  acrid  fluid  into  it.  The 
workers  are  the  only  warriors ;  males  and  females  con- 
ceal themselves  as  soon  as  the  strife  begins.  The  fury 
with  which  they  assail  each  other  is  so  great  that  the 
head,  separated  from  the  trunk  by  the  teeth  of  the  con- 
queror, remains  clinging  to  him.  From  two  ant  hills, 
lying  near  each  other,  and  occupied  by  hostile  parties, 
the  way  between — perhaps  only  one  hundred  feet — pro- 
ceed so  numerous  a  host  that  the  phalanx  covers  a  space 
two  feet  broad,  where  the  battle  rages.  The  combat 
mostly  begins  between  two  ants ;  these  wound  each  other 
with  their  mandibles,  and  eject  their  venomous  fluid  until 
a  third  interferes,  and  so  on  until  the  meUe  is  general. 
Towards  night  both  parties  retire,  bearing  their  prisoners 
with  them,  leaving  the  dead  where  they  fell.  The  ordi- 
nary operations  of  the  two  cities  were  not  suspended 
whilst  the  battle  was  being  fought ;  friend  and  foe  were 
easily  distinguished  by  these  sagacious  little  emmets,  and 
as  those  within  the  anthill,  employed  in  their  tasks,  had 
nothing  to  eat,  except  what  the  others  brought,  they 
received  the  caterers  with  caresses,  bestowed  by  moving 
their  antennae,  whilst  they  fed  on  the  stores  thus  pro- 
vided. 

The  Yellow  Ant  never  leaves  its  home,  but  in  its  hab- 
its resembles  the  aphida.  Very  remarkable,  also,  is 

The  Red  Amazon  or  Legionary  Ant  (formica  rufes- 
cens),  which  sally  forth  in  the  summer  evenings  in  large 
troops,  and  attacking  the  nests  of  the  negro  or  ash- 


190  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

colored  ants  (formica  fusca),  force  their  way  within,  and 
steal  away  their  larvae  and  pupae.  Having  a  sufficient 
number,  they  make  slaves  of  them  by  shifting  all  the 
domestic  duties  of  the  republic  upon  them,  never  work- 
ing themselves.  The  amazons,  a  lazy  race,  as  the  others 
are  industrious,  can  not  live  without  these  slaves,  as, 
some  say,  they  can  not  build  their  own  dwellings  or 
provide  suitably  for  their  pupae. 

The  Gall  ^Vasps  (vespa  gallicolas — cynips)  are  small 
fly-shaped  insects,  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the  leaves  or 
pedicles  of  various  plants.  In  order  to  form  a  proper 
receptacle  they  first  make  an  incision  in  the  outer  cover- 
ing of  the  stem  or  branch,  in  which  they  deposit  their 
eggs ;  the  fluid  thus  accumulating  in  the  wounded  part, 
forms  excrescences  of  a  nut-shape,  which,  as  the  eggs 
give  birth  to  the  larvae,  increase  in  size.  These  small 
rudiments  live  on  the  juices  of  the  plant,  and  when 
developed,  bore  small  round  holes  into  the  gall,  through 
which  they  escape.  The  form  and  solidity  of  these  galls 
vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  parts  of  the  plant 
where  they  are  formed.  Many  are  found  on  the  oak  and 
other  forest  trees,  as  well  as  on  rose  bushes,  where  the 
mossy  covering  of  the  excrescence  gives  it  a  handsome 
appearance.  The  well  known  gall  apples  or  nuts,  from 
which  ink  is  made,  are  the  excrescences  found  on  the 
gall  apple  oak.  They  are  best  plucked  before  they  are 
ripe,  that  is  before  the  insect  has  perforated  them  ;  after 
this  they  are  not  fit  for  the  dyer's  use,  as  they  are  hol- 
low and  lighter-colored.  The  first  gathered  and  best 
arc  called  black  or  green  gall  nuts  ;  the  last  collected 
are  inferior,  and  known  as  white  galls.  The  insects  that 
escape  from  them  are  called 

The  Gall  Nut  Wasps  (cynips  gallos  tinctoriae)  and  are 


INSECTA.  191 

fulvous  with  dark  feelers,  upper  part  of  the  body  shining 
brown.  Found  on  the  oaks  of  Lesser  Asia,  and  used  in 
commerce. 

The  Leaf  Gall  Wasp  (cynips  foliii),  found  in  Europe, 
is  black  with  striped  neck  and  gray  feet ;  lives  on  hazel 
bushes. 

Cynips  Petioli  is  black  with  white  feet,  upper  part  of 
legs  brown ;  many  other  genera. 

The  Rose  Gall  Fly  (cynips  rosae)  is  black,  feet  and 
abdomen  dull  red,  pointed  with  black. 

The  Fig  Borer  (cynips  psenes)  is  very  small,  brown- 
ish red  with  white  wings,  short  antennae  and  curved 
thorax.  This  insect  perforates  the  fruit,  not  only  caus- 
ing it  to  ripen  early,  but  also  leaves  an  enlargement 
within,  which,  formed  by  the  deposit  of  its  eggs,  is  con- 
sidered rather  an  advantage  than  an  injury,  as  it  adds  a 
peculiar  flavor  to  the  fruit.  Therefore  the  figs  of  the 
South,  where  the  fig  borer  only  is  found,  are  said  to 
attain  a  size  and  perfection  which  those  of  a  more  north- 
ern clime,  however  carefully  cultivated,  never  acquire. 

The  Ichneumon  Wasps  resemble  the  fig  borers,  but 
deposit  their  eggs  in  the  flesh  of  caterpillars  or  other 
larvae ;  the  little  grubs  feeding  on  the  juices  of  these 
creatures,  gradually  consume  them. 

The  Black  Ichneumon  (pimpla  manifestator),  black, 
with  sorrel-colored  feet,  cylindrical  body,  smooth,  with 
filiform  antennae.  Length  one  inch,  has  an  ovipositor  an 
inch  and  a  half  long  and  very  sharp,  with  which  it  bores 
holes  in  the  rolled-up  leaves,  where  other  insects  have 
deposited  their  larvae,  and  seeking  the  latter,  lay  their 
eggs  upon  their  rough  bodies,  and  leave  them  to  hatch  in 
their  living  receptacle. 

The  Black  Tailed  Ichneumon  (ichneumon  nigrocau- 


192  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

datus)  is  ten  lines  long  ;  feet  and  abdomen  yellow ;  tail 
and  thorax  black;  latter  spotted  with  yellow;  selects 
the  larvee  of  the  peacock's  eye. 

The .  Yellow  Ichneumon  (ophion  luteus)  is  one  inch 
long,  with  compressed  body,  brilliant  green  eyes,  and 
short  ovipositor :  one  yellow  spot  on  the  back. 

The  Sickle  Ichneumon  (foenus  jaculator)  is  eight 
lines  long,  black;  in  the  middle  foxy,  with  two  silver- 
white  spots  on  the  head,  and  in  flying  elevate  their 
sickle-shaped  bodies  above  the  level  of  their  wings. 

INSECTS  OF  THE  FLY  KIXD  (Diptera) 

Have  only  two  wings ;  are  without  mandibles,  but  instead 
are  provided  with  a  sucker,  which,  in  some,  have  the 
form,  and  serve  as  a  sting. 

The  Horse  Bat  Fly  (oestrus  equi)  belongs  to  this 
family,  and  in  form  resembles  the  large  Muck  Fly,  but 
in  color  a  drone  bee ;  are  found  everywhere  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  horses.  They  lay  their  eggs  in  the  inner  part 
of  the  fore  legs ;  the  .animal,  feeling  the  sting,  licks  the 
spot;  the  nits,  adhering  to  the  tongue,  are  swallowed, 
and,  changed  into  larvae,  fasten  on  the  walls  of  the  stom- 
ach, and  subsist  on  its  secretions  until  fully  grown,  and 
ready  to  assume  the  pupa  state,  when  they  are  thrown 
off,  and  receive  their  winged  form  in  the  open  air. 

The  Gad  Fly  (oestrus  bovus)  makes  small  punctures 
in  the  backs  of  cattle,  and  deposits  its  eggs  within  the 
wound.  These  soon  become  tumid,  and,  filled  with  pur- 
ulent matter,  on  which  these  larva?  live  until  ready  for 
the  pupa  state,  when  they  crawl  forth,  and  burying 
themselves  in  the  ground,  await  their  transformation. 

The  Sheep  Bot  (oestrus  ovis)  places  its  eggs  in  the 


INSECT  A.  193 

nostrils  of  sheep,  goats,  and  deer,  and  as  the  larvae  devel- 
ope,  cause  great  torment  to  those  animals. 

The  Common  Gnat  (culex  pipiens)  is  four  lines  long, 
gray  and  annulate ;  wings  without  spots  ;  have  a  long, 
membraneous,  perpendicular  proboscis,  or  sucker,  con- 
sisting of  five  filaments  which  produce  the  effects  of  a 
sting.  These  insects  develope  in  stagnant  waters,  make 
a  buzzing  noise  as  they  fly,  and  prove  the  torment  of 
man  and  beast.  There  are  several  relative  species,  well 
known  in  southern  climates  as  Musquiioes,  which  are 
considered  intolerable  plagues. 

The  Columbat  or  Servian  Fly  (simulium  reptans)  is 
one  line  and  a  half  long,  with  dark-brown  eyes,  blackish 
body,  yellow-white  below ;  the  long  legs  black,  ringed 
with  white;  wings  transparent,  and  longer  than  the 
body.  The  trunk,  provided  with  bristle-like  lancets,  is 
short.  These  insects  are  peculiar  to  Servia,  within  a 
circuit  of  eight  or  ten  miles  on  the  Danube,  and  at  inter- 
vals appear  in  such  fearful  multitudes,  as  to  occasion 
great  alarm  to  herdsmen,  as  they  have  been  known  to 
destroy  whole  herds  of  cattle.  The  best  protection 
against  their  stings  is  to  anoint  the  bodies  of  the  animals 
with  salve  made  of  tobacco  or  petroleum,  or  smoke  them 
off  by  burning  the  leaves  or  stems  of  tobacco  in  their 
vicinity. 

The  Common  House  Fly  (musca  domestica),  spread 
all  over  the  world,  is  too  well  known  to  merit  a  long 
description ;  the  eyes,  of  a  brownish -red  color,  are  re- 
markable, as  consisting  of  more  than  four  thousand  facets 
or  small  eyes.  The  impudence  of  flies,  intruding  their 
unwelcome  visits  everywhere,  has  become  a  proverb  ; 
their  increase  is  also  incredibly  great,  although  fourteen 
days  are  requisite  for  their  perfect  development.  They 
17 


194  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

place  their  eggs  in  manure  and  all  other  decaying  sub- 
stances. 

The  Blue  Bottle  (musca  vomitoria)  or  Blue-flesh  Fly. 
is  about  half  an  inch  long,  hairy,  black :  abdomen  shin- 
ing blue,  banded  with  black.  The  sense  of  smelling  is 
uncommonly  fine ;  discovering  the  presence  of  flesh  from 
a  great  distance,  they  are  at  once  attracted,  and  deposit 
their  eggs  upon  it.  Resembling  it  is 

The  Corpse  Fly ;  the  head  is  brilliant  yellow,  and 
frequently  is  found  hovering  around  the  corpses  of  human 
beings. 

The  Gold  Fly  (musca  csesar)  is  slender,  three  lines 
long,  smooth  and  shining  green,  with  gold  reflections. 
They  lay  their  eggs  in  putrid  carcasses,  flayed  skins, 
etc.  Are  found  in  the  open  air,  rather  than  houses. 

The  Gray  Meat  Fly  (musca  carnaria)  is  remarkable 
in  bringing  forth  its  young  living,  and  at  once  fitted  for 
preying  on  meat,  that  in  consequence  almost  immediately 
afterwards  becomes  putrid.  There  are  several  relative 
species,  as  the  Vinegar  Fly,  Mushroom  or  Puff-ball 
Fly,  etc. 


CLASS    VII. 
WORMS. -RADIATA. 


Worms,  occupying  the  lowest  place  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  have  mostly  soft,  cylindrical  bodies,  at  least 
those  which,  like  the  common  earth-worm,  or  leech,  are 
designated  as  the  true  worms.  In  a  farther  division,  of 
this  class,  the  subjects  will  be  found  to  possess,  instead 
of  a  soft  slimy  body,  a  more  or  less  crustaceous  or  mem- 
braneous covering,  serving  as  defense  to  the  animals. 
They  have  been  arranged  in  the  four  following  orders  : 

FIRST  ORDER :  . .  TRUE  EARTHWORMS. — Lumbrici.  . 
SECOND  ORDER:  INTESTINAL  WORMS. 
THIRD  ORDER :  .  SEA  NETTLES  or  STAR  FISH.— Polypi. 
FOURTH  ORDER:  INFUSORIA.— Animalculce. 


FIRST    ORDER. 
LUMBRICI.  — TRUE    EARTH    WORMg. 

The  Common  Earth  or  Rain  Worm  (lumbricus  ter- 
restris)  is  red  and  has  a  kind  of  swelling  in  the  middle 
of  his  body,  in  which  the  gills  or  organs  of  respiration 
are  supposed  to  be  situated ;  composed  of  annular  seg- 


196  NATTJKAL  HISTORY. 

ments,  it  measures  a  span  in  length,  is  about  the  size  of 
a  quill  in  thickness,  and  has  neither  mandibles  nor  eyes. 
Feeds  on  earth,  mingled  with  decaying  substances,  comes 
forth  after  midnight  from  holes  in  the  ground,  and  is  only 
injurious  as  it  attacks  the  fine  roots  of  plants.  It  passes 
the  winter  season  deeply  buried  in  the  earth.  Anglers 
use  it  to  bait  their  hooks. 

The  Water  Worms  (gordius  aquaticus)  are  a  span 
long  and  not  thicker  than  a  violin  string.  Live  in 
muddy  places  or  standing  water. 

The  Leeches  (hirudo  medicinalis),  plate  26,  fig.  11, 
are  distinguished  from  other  worms  by  the  presence  of 
small  teeth  and  in  having  the  posterior  extremity  fur- 
nished with  a  cup-like  disk,  adapted  for  suction.  They 
measure  a  finger  in  length,  and  are  about  two  lines  in 
thickness ;  black  above,  with  eight  yellow  stripss,  spotted 
with  the  same  color  below.  They  live  in  ponds  and 
marshy  brooks  ;  fastening  on  fish,  they  suck  their  blood. 
Their  method  of  moving  is  as  follows  :  having  stretched 
themselves  at  full  length  upon  the  victim,  they  suck 
themselves  fast,  thus  having  fixed  their  anterior  extrem- 
ity, they  draw  the  other  up  to  it  and  fix  that,  and  then 
readvance  the  first.  They  swim  with  great  facility, 
using  a  serpent-like  motion,  and  are  much  esteemed  in 
medicine  as  useful  instruments  in  local  blood-letting. 
They  lay  eggs,  which  they  fasten  on  stones  or  water- 
plants  by  a  fibrous  excretion.  Those  brought  from  Hun- 
gary are  considered  the  best. 

'  The  Horse  Leech  (hirudo  gulo)  has  no  stripes  on  the 
back;  greenish-black  above,  gray  below.  Their  bite 
causes  large  pustules  in  the  skin.  Several  smaller  spe- 
cies are  found  in  the  East  Indies,  many  of  which  are 
dangerous,  as  inhabiting  all  the  muddy  ditches  or  stag- 


WORMS.  197 

nant  waters,  through  which  roads  pass,  they  fasten  on 
the  feet  of  barefoot  travelers  and  suck  their  blood. 

The  Dentdlium  (dentalium  entale).  plate  25,  fig.  7, 
is  a  worm  that  lives  in  a  single  shell,  which  bears  a  min- 
iature resemblance  to  an  elephant's  tusk.  It  buries  itself 
perpendicularly  in  the  sand  with  the  pointed  end  down- 
wards, scarcely  as  thick  as  a  quill,  smooth  and  slightly 
red.  Its  length  exceeds  an  inch.  Found  in  all  the  seas 
in  Europe. 


SECOND   ORDER. 
INTESTINAL    WORMS. 

These  are  a  numerous  spscies,  and  inhabit  the  intes- 
tines of  many  animals,  causing  pain,  disease,  and  often 
death.  The  most  common  are 

The  Ascarides  (ascaris  lumbricoides),  which  resemble 
the  rain  worms  in  the  cylindrical  form  of  their  bodies  ; 
they  are  as  thick  as  a  quill,  sometimes  a  foot  long,  and 
have  the  mouth  furnished  with  three  fleshy  tubercles. 
They  are  common  to  almost  every  one  in  childhood,  but 
in  later  life,  except  in  some  few  cases,  disappear.  San- 
tonin is  considered  a  specific. 

The  Guinea  Worm  (vena  medinensis)  is  sometimes 
five  or  six  feet  long,  and  about  as  thick  as  the  largest 
string  of  a  violin.  Very  common  in  hot  climates,  where 
it  insinuates  itself  under  the  skin,  generally  of  the  leg, 
where  it  causes  excruciating  pain  and  severe  cramps. 
When  this  is  the  case  the  skin  must  be  opened,  and  the 
worm  extracted  very  slowly  for  fear  of  breaking  it.  The 


198  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Filaria  or  Thread  Worm  resembles  it  closely ;  mostly 
found  in  horses. 

The  Tape  Worm  (taenia  lata)  is  composed  of  numer- 
ous joints,  is  often  twenty  feet  long,  and  instead  of  a 
mouth  has  two  canals  ramifying  from  the  suckers  on  the 
head.  Found  in  the  intestines  of  the  human  species, 
more  frequently  in  Russia  and  Switzerland  than  in  the 
other  European  countries.  Resembling  it  is 

The  Solitary  or  Chain  Worm  (taenia  solium),  which 
has  the  head  provided  with  four  tubes,  and  crowned  with 
double  hooks  ;  with  these  they  so  completely  absorb  the 
nourishment  intended  for  the  bodies  in  which  they  dwell, 
that  they  soon  exhaust  them.  Of  all  worms,  they  are 
the  hardest  to  expel. 

The  Fluke  (distoma  hepaticum)  is  one  inch  long,  four 
to  six  lines  broad  :  dull  yellow  or  brown-gray.  Its  form 
is  oval,  flat,  with  a  short,  bullet-shaped  neck  ;  has  on  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  body  a  small  sucker,  on  the  ab- 
dominal surface  a  larger  opening.  Found  frequently  in 
the  gall  ducts  of  diseased  sheep  and  hares,  but  also  infest 
those  of  the  ox,  horse,  or  hog. 

The  Qiteese  (coenurus  cerebralis)  resembles  a  bladder, 
in  size  about  as  large  as  a  filbert  or  small  hen's  egg,  in 
which  are  more  than  a  hundred  little  white  worms,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  half  a  line  to  two  whole  ones,  the  heads 
of  which  have  each  four  suckers.  These  worms  are  sup- 
posed to  cause  the  disease  called  the  staggers,  to  which 
sheep  are  subject.  The  animal  appears  to  suffer  great 
pain,  and  totters  round  and  round  until  exhausted.  The 
larvae  gradually  consume  the  substance  of  the  brain,  pro- 
ducing death.  Sometimes  they  infest  the  ox  or  other 
ruminants ;  very  rarely  horses. 

The  Measle  (cysticercus  cellulosae)  is  barely  a  watery 


WORMS.  199 

bladder,  supporting  one  short  head,  provided  with  four 
suckers.  About  as  large  as  a  pea.  they  are  found  in  the 
cellular  or  membranous  portions  of  hogs,  and  render  tho 
flesh  unfit  to  be  eaten. 


THIRD    ORDER. 
ZOOPHYTES    OR    R  A  D I  A  T  A . 

This  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  comprehends  two 
principal  classes,  namely  Polypi  andi  Sea  Stars  (asteria). 
The  former  have  larger  or  smaller  sized  bodies,  with  an 
opening  on  one  of  the  extremities,  surrounded  by  radii 
or  long  tentacles,  and  live  either  singly  or  in  companies. 
In  the  first  case  they  are  soft  and  without  any  encasing 
tegument ;  in  the  second  they  form  a  common  dwelling 
composed  of  calcareous  matter ;  this  solid  envelope  as- 
sumes various  forms,  and  constitutes  small  cells  or  tubes, 
each  of  which  contains  a  polyp ;  the  aggregated  mass  is 
called  coral.  The  sea-stars,  on  the  other  hand,  always 
live  singly ;  the  body  is  in  the  form  of  a  star  with  five 
rays ;  the  outer  covering  is  either  coricaceous  or  calcare- 
ous. 

The  Armed  Green  Polypus  (hydra  viridis)  has  a 
transparent  cylindrical  body,  resembling  a  gelatinous 
tube,  with  from  six  to  twelve  tentaculae  on  the  free  ex- 
tremity. In  length  one  inch,  and  about  as  thick  as  the 
tube  of  a  crow  quill;  the  filaments  surrounding  the 
mouth  longer  than  the  body,  which  they  can  extend  or 
shorten  at  pleasure.  These  polyps  live  in  fresh  water 
ponds  everywhere  in  Europe.  Their  presence  is  easily 


200  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

discovered,  although  perfectly  transparent,  for  if  taken 
up  in  a  bucket  full  of  water  lentils,  among  -which  they 
are  sure  to  be  found,  and  placed  in  a  glass  vessel,  they 
always  seek  the  side  most  strongly  illuminated.  They 
are  really  nothing  more  than  a  membraneous  sack,  in- 
closed at  the  lower  end ;  nevertheless,  they  crawl  and 
swim  actively  by  agitating  their  long  tentacles,  and  seize 
small  animals,  from  which  they  suck  the  fluids  and 
reject  the  remainder.  If  touched,  they  retract  their 
bodies  so  as  to  resemble  a  small  mass  of  green  jelly,  and 
when  cut  into  pieces,  each  fragment  becomes  an  entire 
and  perfect  hydra. 

The  Noble  Coral  (isis  nobilis)  is  a  stony  substance 
in  the  form  of  a  stem,  with  branches  of  a  beautiful  red 
color,  and  valued  as  an  ornament ;  most  frequently  found 
in  the  Mediterranean.  The  little  polypi  are  found  in  the 
gelatinous  stem  which  forms  the  axis  of  the  stony  one, 
where,  projecting  their  tentacles  outside  their  cells,  they 
resemble  buds  or  flowers.  Thus  grouped,  they  form  tho 
coral  branches,  and  it  is  often  observed  that  the  polypi 
on  the  lower  portion  of  the  trunk  are  dead  whilst  those 
on  the  upper  are  living. 

The  Sea  Feather  (pennatula  rubra)  looks  much  like 
the  common  quill,  measuring  six  inches,  and  has  a  mem- 
braneous barrel  on  which  these  polypi  rest,  giving  it  the 
appearance  of  a  bearded  feather.  They  have  been  termed 
the  gems  of  the  sea.  They  fasten  in  the  sand,  and  sparkle 
even  in  the  daylight  as  if  surrounded  by  bright  little 
stars. 

The  Sea  Anemones  (actinea  coriacea)  are  round,  and 
resemble  a  flower;  they  attach  themselves,  by  a  broad 
base  or  foot,  to  a  rock,  and  have  numerous  tentacula 
about  the  mouth,  or  upper  extremity ;  are  about  the  size 


WORMS.  201 

of  a  watch.  The  interior  is  hollow,  and  within  the  cav- 
ity a  stomach  is  plainly  to  be  seen ;  the  foot  or  base  is 
fleshy,  but  they  can  detach  themselves,  fix,  or  crawl 
about  on  the  rocks,  by  its  aid ;  of  a  brilliant  red  color, 
they  look  like  beautiful  flowers  growing  on  the  bottom 
of  the  sea.  If  touched,  they  sting  like  the  nettle ;  if  cut 
in  two,  each  fragment  reproduces  a  new  being.  They 
bring  forth  their  young,  which  escape  from  the  mouth, 
living,  and  are  eatable ;  there  are  several  species. 

To  the  Sea-stars  belong 

The  Sea  Hedge  Hoy  or  Sea  Eggs  (echinus  escu- 
lentus),  which  are  about  as  large  as  an  apple ;  have  five 
spinous  rays;  in  these  radii  are  small  openings  from 
which  perforations  the  long  tentacula  or  membraneous 
feet  protrude.  They  crawl  on  their  mouths,  searching 
round  on  the  bottom  for  crabs,  on  which  they  feed ;  they 
are  eatable. 

The  Common  Sea  Star  (asteria  rubens)  is  composed 
of  five  rays ;  star  shaped,  with  small  rugged  knobs  on 
the  back,  and  measures  a  span  in  diameter. 

The  Medusa  (euryale  caput  Medusae).  The  border 
rays  divide  themselves  into  branches  capable  of  contrac- 
tion or  dilatation.  The  body,  a  span  in  length,  is  broad, 
more  or  less  convex,  resembles  the  cap  or  umbrella  of  a 
mushroom ;  red,  like  coral ;  rough  and  knobbed  like  that 
of  a  shark.  It  lives  in  the  Arctic  seas,  and  may  be  seen 
swimming,  which  motion  is  performed  by  the  contraction 
or  dilatation  of  the  tentacula,  which  form  the  margin  of 
the  umbrella,  and  probably  serves  it  to  seize  the  small 
mollusca  on  which  it  feeds. 

The  Indian  Medusa  (asterias  euryale),  also  called 
the  Gorgorfs  Head.  The  disk  is  divided  into  five 
ragged  branches  about  the  length  of  a  hand ;  each  of 


202  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

these  are  again  subdivided,  until  they  become  thin  as 
threads.  These  branches  consist  of  innumerable  osseous 
segments  or  plates.  The  color  is  generally  red,  some- 
times, however,  it  is  found  gray,  green,  yellow,  or  black. 
Seen  under  water,  it  resembles  an  expanded  flower,  but 
when  but  slightly  raised  in  the  water,  the  serrated  rays 
hang  down  like  flaps ;  but  if  drawn  forth  entirely  it 
fastens  from  above  on  the  hand,  which  not  a  little  alarms 
the  intruder,  who,  believing  only  to  have  grasped  a  mass 
of  inert  matter,  finds  it  a  living  creature,  and  disposed  to 
resent.  It  dies  immediately.  Contracting  all  its  radii 
into  a  globose  form,  it  folds  itself  up  like  a  plant  that 
closes  its  petals  at  night.  It  can  not  be  kept,  even  with 
the  greatest  care,  but  a  very  short  time,  as  it  is  exceed- 
ingly brittle,  and  the  joints  very  slightly  connected. 


FOURTH    ORDER. 
INFUSORIA. 

The  infusory  animals  or  animalculse,  found  in  all  waters 
more  or  less  corrupted,  are  so  minute  that  few  of  them  can 
be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  But,  notwithstanding  their 
extreme  smallness,  the  microscope  has  enabled  the  natur- 
alist to  discover  the  form  and  trace  the  organization  of 
these  creatures,  which  form  the  last  series  of  beings  in 
the  animal  scale.  Professor  Ehrenberg  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  discovering  their  existence,  as  well  as  organi- 
zation, in  the  infusions  of  different  plants,  such  as 
carmine,  blue,  etc.,  which,  used  for  dying,  contained  ani- 
malculae.  These  Infusioria,  receiving  the  colored  fluid, 


IXSECTA.  203 

which  they  sucked  into  their  transparent  bodies,  its  course 
could  be  distinctly  traced  in  the  internal  processes  of  a 
stomach  and  intestinal  canal.  Although  so  exceedingly 
minute,  they  differ  greatly  in  form.  Some  are  round  ; 
others  flat  or  oval,  cylindrical,  shorter,  or  longer.  The 
bodies  are  mostly  smooth ;  some,  however,  have  a  gall- 
like  covering ;  others  a  calcareous  coat  of  mail,  which  is 
of  different  forms — either  shell,  shield,  or  mantle-shaped. 
They  all  have,  on  the  fore  part,  a  very  singular  prolong- 
ation, which  is  considered  the  organ  of  locomotion. 
Below  this  are  the  tail  and  the  wheel-like  apparatus  by 
which  they  perform  the  rotatory  vibrations  from  which 
one  class  receive  their  name  (Rotifera).  This  consists 
of  various  tubes,  fitted  into  each  other,  like  those  of  a 
telescope  ;  or  else  of  numerous  soft  syphons  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  mouth,  and  surrounded  with  rows  of  cilia. 
Many  species  have  the  faculty  of  prolonging  the  body  in 
front,  and  thus  change  its  form  ;  others  are  clothed  with 
stiff  hairs,  or  beards,  and  have  horns,  spurs,  suckers,  and 
muzzles.  The  vibratile  cilia  is,  however,  with  a  some- 
what different  arrangement,  found  in  most.  These,  placed 
around  the  mouth,  or  often  over  the  whole  body,  are 
always  in  motion,  and  in  water  revolve  in  circles,  serving 
also  as  antennae.  Some  are  dotted  with  red  and  black 
points ;  others  have  eyes  placed  just  above  the  mouth ; 
no  others  of  the  organs  of  the  senses  can  be  observed. 

The  Infusoria  abound  in  great  numbers,  and  spring 
into  existence  either  by  the  simple,  but  ever  active  power 
of  creative  nature,  or  else  issue  from  eggs  which  they 
produce  in  great  numbers.  Those  which  have  a  calca- 
reous or  fossil-like  envelope,  form,  after  dying,  large  hills. 
This  might  seem  incredible,  that  such  minute  creatures 
could  thus  subserve  so  great  a  purpose,  had  it  not  been 


1^04  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

proved,  by  late  discoveries,  that  many  formations  of  rock 
owe  their  origin  to  the  Infusoria.  For  instance,  chalk 
cliffs  are  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  a  combination  of 
the  calcareous  scales  or  shells  of  the  animalcule,  belong- 
ing to  the  antediluvian  world.  This  class  feed  not  only 
on  all  corrupt  substances,  but  also  seize  and  devour  each 
other.  Space  can  not  be  afforded  for  a  general  review 
of  the  species.  We  will,  however,  mention  a  few. 

The  Smallest  Point  (monas  termo)  a  thousandth  part 
of  a  line  (tenth  of  an  inch)  long,  and,  a  mere  point,  is  a 
simple  globule,  without  tail  or  eyes ;  nevertheless,  it 
swims  about  rapidly  by  means  of  its  mouth.  A  single 
drop  of  water  is  said  to  contain  five  thousand  millions. 

The  Globe  (volvox  globator),  being  about  the  third  of 
a  line  in  size,  can  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye.  It  is  trans- 
parent, studded  with  more  minute  globes  of  green.  If 
viewed  under  a  microscope,  these  minute  creatures  can 
be  seen  revolving  with  great  rapidity  on  their  own  axis. 

The  Wheel  Animalcule  (virdicella  senta)  is  one-sixth 
of  a  line  long ;  almost  globular ;  as  it  moves  emits  a 
phosphorescent  luster. 

The  Vinegar  Eel  (vibrio  asceti)  is  hardly  a  line  in 
length,  and  has  a  thread-like  body ;  found  in  great  num- 
bers in  vinegar,  so  that  many  thousands  are  swallowed  in 
taking  a  spoonful  of  this  fluid.  Are  never  found  in  bad 
vinegar. 


THE    VEGETABLE    KINGDOM. 


PLANTS,  like  animals,  are  living,  organized  matter, 
but,  although  possessing  vital  action,  they  are  distin- 
guished from  the  latter  in  that  they  are  incapable  of 
locomotion ;  for,  whilst  most  animals  possess  the  power 
of  moving  from  place  to  place,  the  plant  strikes  its  root 
firmly  into  the  ground,  and  only  turns  towards  the  point 
from  which  it  receives  light  or  nourishment.  Therefore, 
as  the  whole  body  stands  firmly  rooted,  it  may  be  con- 
cluded that  this  inclination  or  movement  must  be  gradual, 
and  affected  only  by  certain  portions  of  the  plant.  The 
root,  for  instance,  inclines  naturally  towards  the  spot 
from  which  most  nourishment  can  be  derived ;  the  leaves 
turn  to  meet  the  light ;  and  whilst  the  more  highly  or- 
ganized animal  can  never  derive  subsistence  from  unor- 
ganized matter,  vegetables,  on  the  other  hand,  are,  from 
the  power  they  possess  of  absorption  and  assimilation, 
fully  able  to  derive  their  nourishment  from  inorganic 
substances ;  these  are  absorbed  from  without,  and  are 
oxygen,  hydrogen,  azote  or  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid 
gas.  As  it  is  important  to  know  in  what  manner  these 
elements  are  made  essential  to  the  nutriment  of  plants, 
we  will  try  to  explain  it 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  vegetable  derives  its 


206  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

nutrition  solely  from  the  earth  which  forms  the  basis  and 
furnishes  facilities  for  the  firm  planting  and  outspreading 
of  its  roots ;  this  is  the  office  assigned  to  it  by  nature,  but 
nothing  more.  The  manner  in  which  the  nutritive  mat- 
ter is  received  by  the  plant  is  as  follows  :  Hydrogen  and 
oxygen  are  received  through  the  water,  which  is  indis- 
pensably necessary  to  maintain  its  vitality,  and,  either  in 
the  form  of  rain  or  vapor,  penetrates  the  earth ;  in  this  a 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  is  dissolved,  which  the 
plant  absorbs.  Nitrogen  is  received  partly  by  the  atmos- 
pheric air,  which  is  a  compound  of  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and 
watery  vapor,  and  partly  that,  during  a  thunder-storm, 
much  nitric  acid  is  found  in  the  water,  which,  always 
holding  in  solution  a  greater  or  less  quantity,  finds  its 
way  to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  In  the  meantime  few 
plants,  subsisting  barely  on  inorganic  matter,  attain  to 
full,  luxuriant  growth,  but  require,  in  order  to  a  more 
perfect  development,  the  presence  of  organic  matter, 
which,  in  combination  with  the  elementary  substances 
above  named,  tends  to  the  promotion  and  improvement 
of  the  vegetable  classes.  This  organized  matter,  well 
known  as  manure  or  compost,  is  formed  of  decayed  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  substances ;  and  as  these  decompositions 
serve  for  a  healthy  nourishment  to  plants,  we  must  infer 
that  the  subjects  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  possess  the 
faculty  to  perform  the  important  work  of  purifying  the 
atmosphere  of  such  impure  gases  as  would  prove  dele- 
terious to  man  and  beast.  It  is  well  known  how  soon 
the  air  of  a  room  in  which  men  or  animals  are  confined 
becomes  impure ;  and,  remaining  unventilated,  causes 
death.  This  is  because  the  oxygen  inhaled  with  the  at- 
mospheric air  is  exhausted,  and  the  carbonic  acid  thrown 
off  in  breathing  poisons  the  air,  soon  making  inspiration 


PLANTS.  207 

impossible.  Plants,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  faculty 
of  inhaling  carbon  and  exhaling  oxygen,  retaining  the 
former  as  necessary  to  their  vegetable  existence ;  so 
that  we  may  not  suppose  that  plants  are  only  useful,  as 
they  please  with  their  variety  and  beauty,  or  form  a 
portion  of  the  nutriment  of  the  animal  kingdom,  but  by 
the  purifying  influence  they  exert  on  the  atmosphere, 
are  absolutely  necessary  for  the  continuance  and  comfort 
of  animal  life.  Experience,  too,  has  shown  how  impor- 
tant is  their  agency  as  articles  of  food ;  most  animals  live 
altogether  on  vegetables,  comparatively  few  are  so  car- 
nivorous as  wholly  to  reject  them ;  and  it  is  a  well  known 
fact  that  all  places  destitute  of  vegetable  life  aro  not  only 
uninhabitable,  but  also  very  unhealthy. 

Vegetation  is,  therefore,  the  precursor  of  animal  life 
in  the  economy  of  nature ;  all  animals,  either  directly  or 
indirectly  are  nourished  by  plants;  and  the  vegetable 
kingdom  thus  rendering  such  varied  and  important  ser- 
vice to  the  animal,  may  be  truly  said  to  touch  closely  on 
its  foundation.  There  is  scarcely  a  plant  that  does  not 
nourish  some  animal ;  almost  all  insects,  for  example, 
live  either  in  the  perfect  or  in  the  larva  state  at  the 
expense  of  the  plant  upon  which  they  are  habitually  found ; 
even  in  the  highest  classes  of  animals  the  number  of  veg- 
etable-eating species  is  immense ;  and  man,  standing  at 
the  head  of  the  mighty  chain  of  being,  also  derives  most 
of  his  food  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

Plants  themselves,  however,  unlike  animals,  subsist 
on  barely  inorganic  matter;  they  do  not,  like  them, 
require  a  digestive  apparatus  by  which  the  aliment  neces- 
sary to  their  existence  is  extracted  from  the  rude  mass, 
but  absorbs  the  nutritive  portion  through  the  roots.  The 
fluid,  thtis  introduced  into  the  body  of  the  plant,  and 


203  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

called  sap,  rises  into  the  stem ;  from  thence  it  is  carried 
into  the  leaves,  which  are  the  special  organs  of  exhala- 
tion and  respiration,  and  it  is  through  their  agency  that 
the  superfluous  oxygen  is  thrown  off.  The  roots,  there- 
fore, performing  the  digestive  process  of  extracting  nutri- 
tion, have  been  considered  as  the  stomach  of  the  plant,  the 
stem  its  body,  and  the  leaves  its  lungs. 

All  plants,  however,  are  not  rooted  in  the  earth ;  there 
are  many  which  float  on  the  water,  sending  their  fila- 
mentous roots  below  the  surface ;  some,  the  lichens,  for 
instance,  spreading  themselves  over  the  naked  rock,  seem 
to  derive  no  aid  from  the  earth,  and  others,  like  the  mis- 
tletoe, and  the  family  of  parasites,  springing  from  other 
trees,  obtain  from  them  the  living  principle. 

The  multiplication  of  plants  takes  place,  most  com- 
monly, through  the  seeds  which  are  formed  in  the  flower ; 
sometimes  by  means  of  special  organs  destined  to  produce 
the  germ  of  a  new  individual ;  and  sometimes  by  the 
simple  division  of  their  tissue,  or  driving  their  roots 
through  the  earth,  shoot  up  at  a  distance  from  the 
mother  plant,  and  maintain  an  independent  growth. 
The  common  strawberry,  as  is  well  known,  sends  out 
its  runners,  and  forces  its  way  over  every  obstacle,  until 
a  favorable  spot  is  found  for  putting  forth  a  bud ;  this 
being  effected,  the  thread-like  roots  fix  themselves  firmly 
in  the  ground,  and  a  new  progeny  is  formed.  Every 
part  of  a  plant,  at  least  from  those  of  the  most  perfect 
development,  is  capable  of  sending  forth  new  roots; 
branches  turned  downward,  and  covered  with  earth,  take 
root,  and  reproduce  a  new  growth  of  the  same  species ; 
the  same  is  also  true  of  roots,  which  have  the  faculty  to 
give  rise  to  leaves  and  stems. 

Plants  are  distinguished  as  simple  or  compound.     In 


PLANTS.  209 

the  first  named  we  find  a  like  connection  and  symmetry 
as  in  the  higher  class  of  animals ;  one  plant  is  an  inde- 
pendent individual,  as,  for  instance,  the  grasses,  palm 
tree,  or  onion-like  bulbs.  In  these  families,  propagation 
by  buds  or  shoots  is  not  to  be  thought  of;  their  repro- 
duction is  effected  by  seed,  tubers,  or  offsets  from  the 
roots.  It  is,  however,  different  in  the  compound  species, 
where  many  individuals  are  found  on  one  stem.  The 
leaf  buds  and  twigs  of  the  apple  may  be  considered  each 
as  a  separate  member,  and,  if  surrounded  by  moist  earth 
or  moss  at  a  particular  point,  will  put  forth  roots  without 
a  stagnation  of  the  nutritive  juices  being  necessary. 
When  these  roots  appear  the  branch  may  be  cut,  and  so 
separated  from  the  parent  plant,  becomes  a  new  individ- 
ual. If  a  healthy  branch  or  bud  is  carefully  cut  and 
placed  in  an  incision  made  between  the  bark  and  wood 
of  a  tree  belonging  to  the  same  species,  it  grows  as  read- 
ily as  on  the  parent  plant,  and  is  called  grafting  or 
budding.  These  two  examples  serve  to  show  that  plants, 
capable  of  propagation,  are  not  simple  or  individual  sub- 
jects of  the  vegetable  world,  but  one  tree  is  a  sort  of 
community  of  members,  of  which,  like  the  coralline  polyps, 
many  subsist  on  one  stem.  In  the  economy  of  simple 
plants  a  different  arrangement  is  observed  between  their 
nutritive  organs  and  those  of  the  compound.  The  palm, 
bulbs,  and  grasses  come  forth  from  the  earth  almost  with 
nearly  the  same  thickness  they  ever  attain.  They  in- 
crease only  in  height,  scarcely  any  in  circumference. 
The  interior  of  the  stems  of  these  plants,  when  not  alto- 
gether hollow,  is  filled  with  a  round  cellular  tissue,  the 
fine  vessels  of  Avhich  ramify  in  all  directions.  In  these 
classes,  the  stems,  if  closely  observed,  present  no  dis- 
tinction between  wood  and  bark ;  in  the  compound 


210  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

plants,  however,  this  difference  is  fairly  manifested. 
First  appears  a  slender,  succulent  stam,  which  soon 
divides  into  two  principal  parts,  outer  and  inner ;  the 
outer  rind  or  cortical  portion  is  called  bark,  the  inner 
or  ligneous,  is  termed  wood ;  both,  although  at  first  soft, 
gradually  dry  and  become  hard,  after  which  they  serve 
for  the  support  and  protection  of  the  plant,  rather  than 
for  its  nourishment.  The  portion  in  which  are  placed 
the  organs  of  nutrition  lies  between  the  bark  and  wood ; 
it  remains  unchanged  and  soft  during  the  life  of  the 
plant,  and  is  called  alburnum  or  sapwood.  This  drying 
up  every  year  adds  alike  to  the  thickness  of  the  bark 
and  wood,  and  thus,  as  layer  after  layer  is  formed  annu- 
ally, the  plant  increases  in  circumference,  and  on  being 
sawed  across  will  be  found  to  consist  of  a  number  of 
rings,  by  which  its  age  is  determined.  Not  so,  however, 
with  the  bark,  for,  although  a  new  layer  is  annually 
added,  instead  of  forming  ligneous  layers  like  the  albur- 
num, after  having  once  served  the  purpose  of  circulation, 
it  is  thrown  aside,  or  rather  divides,  as  the  girth  of  the 
plant  increases,  into  rifts  or  fissures,  as  if  forced  to  do 
so.  by  the  accumulating  growth  within. 

The  most  important  part  of  a  plant,  however,  is  its 
flowers,  for  not  only  do  they  bestow  pleasure  from  their 
brilliant  colorings,  beautiful  structure,  and  sweet  odor, 
but  are  also  most  useful  as  being  the  precursors  of  the 
fruit.  And  besides  these,  it  is  the  flowers  that  bear  the 
seed  which  is  to  perpetuate  the  race,  and  are  the  charac- 
teristic tokens  of  the  species  to  which  they  belong. 

Whilst  animals  are  always  found  divided  into  the  two 
races  of  male  and  female,  in  the  vegetable  world  the  sexes 
are  frequently  found  united  in  one  flower,  and  the  organs 
peculiar  to  each  are  plainly  observable.  In  a  tulip,  for 


PLANTS.  211 

instance,  the  organs  of  multiplication  are  very  evident, 
as  they  are  in  nearly  all  the  phsenogamous  or  flowering 
plants.  The  pistil  occupies  the  middle  of  the  corolla,  at 
the  termination  of  the  axis.  It  consists  of  three  parts  : 
the  ovary,  or  germ,  the  style,  and  the  stigma,  and  around 
it  are  six  stamens.  Above  these  are  little  round  bodies 
or  sacs,  containing  a  fine  dust,  •which  is  the  fructifying 
pollen.  Thus,  from  their  peculiar  structure,  the  flowers 
belonging  to  this  class,  termed  polygamia  or  unisexual, 
contain  the  procreative  principle  within  themselves  ;  and 
even  as  this  is  the  case  in  all  the  Lilyacese,  so  there  are 
others,  like  the  hemp,  in  which  some  plants  only  are  the 
seed-bearers,  or  in  the  pine,  on  which  are  found  blos- 
soms evidently  different  as  to  sex.  Many  plants,  how- 
ever,, are  so  small  that  the  sexual  characteristics  can  not 
be  determined. 

If  the  movement  of  the  sap  in  a  plant  is  in  any  way 
interrupted,  the  parts  immediately  begin  to  wither  and 
decay,  and  it  soon  dies  altogether.  Many  last  only  one 
year,  and,  dying  as  soon  as  their  seed  is  matured,  are 
called  annuals ;  others  require  two  years  before  they 
attain  their  ultimate  perfection  :  these  are  termed  bien- 
nials ;  and  again,  there  are  some,  which,  existing  for  an 
indefinite  number  of  years,  are  known  as  perennials. 

Linnaeus,  whose  system  is  considered  the  most  simple, 
distributed  the  plants  into  classes  according  to  the  num- 
ber, size,  growth,  or  peculiar  functions  of  the  stamens  or 
male  organs.  These  are  as  follows  :* 

*  Some  naturalists  have  based  the  arrangement  on  the  texture  and 
size  of  plants,  classing  them  in  divisions  of  Herbs,  Shrubs,  and  Trees. 
Others,  again,  on  the  structure  and  form  of  the  Calyx,  the  Corolla, 
the  Fruit,  etc,  or  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  some  important  organ  : 
the  favorite  object,  at  present,  following  Jussieu  and  De  Candolle,  is 
to  arrange  plants  strictly  according  to  their  affinities ;  to  group  to- 


212  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

A — Flowering  plants,  or  those  with  visible  flowers. 
a — Hermaphrodite,  or  those  which  unite  both  sexes 
in  the  same  flower. 

1.  The  stamens  are  free  and  of  indefinite  lengths. 

CLASS  1.  IfoxAXDRiA — one  stamen — Shavegrasa. 

"  2.  DIAXDRIA,  or  with  two  stamens — Privet. 

"  3.  TRIAXDBIA — with  three  stamens,  as  the  Corn  or  Sword  Lily. 

"  4.  TETRAKDRIA — four  stamens,  as  the  Lady's  Bedstraw. 

"  5.  PEXTAXDRIA — five  stamens — Primrose,  Anemone. 

"  6.  HEXAXDRIA — six  stamens — Leek,  Tulip. 

"  7.  HEPTANDRIA — seven  stamens — Horse  Chestnut. 

gether,  in  Orders  and  Tribes,  those  which  are  most  nearly  related  in 
all  the  features  and  properties  which  constitute  character.  "  These 
various  systems  may  be  all  regarded  as  forming  only  two  kinds,  namely, 
the  artificial  and  natural  methods,  though  in  point  of  fact,  the  artifi- 
cial methods  are  more  or  less  founded  on  nature,  and  in  the  most  per- 
fect natural  arrangements  yet  devised,  artificial  sections,  or  groupings, 
are  still  resorted  to  as  useful  helps  and  expedients.  What  is  called 
a  natural  method,  is  so  termed  because  it  expresses  the  natural  rela- 
tionship of  plants  as  far  as  practicable ;  for  every  form  yet  devised, 
or  likely  to  be  contrived,  is,  to  a  considerable  extent,  artificial." 
The  Linncean  Classification,  founded  on  the  characters  of  two  of  their 
most  important  organs — namely,  the  stamens  and  the  pistils — has  the 
merit  of  combining  some  of  the  advantages  of  both  the  artificial  and 
natural  methods,  and  will  probably  long  continue  to  be  employed  as 
a  convenient  and  useful  help  to  the  investigations  of  young  beginners. 
It  is  remarkable  how  many  natural  families  of  plants  are  kept  nearly 
entire,  under  the  Sexual  System. 

It  has  been  often  objected  to  the  Linnsean  method,  that  there  are 
too  many  exceptions  to  the  rules  of  classification — that  a  number  of 
genera  comprise  species  which,  according  to  the  system,  belong  to  a 
different  Class  or  Order — and  thus  mislead  and  puzzle  the  student. 
This  objection  is  undoubtedly  founded  on  fact  ;  nevertheless,  to  those 
who  are  commencing  the  study  of  Botany — and  especially  to  such  as 
have  no  other  aid  than  books — I  would  say,  avail  yourselves  of  the 
Linnssan  method  as  the  easiest  stepping  stone  to  the  vestibule  of  the 
temple,  and  the  readiest  means  of  acquiring  the  names  and  learning 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  more  common  plants  by  which  the 
student  is  surrounded. — DARLIN-GTON'S  FLORA  CESTEICA. — Tr. 


PLANTS.  213 

CLASS  8.  OCTAXDRIA — eight  stamens— Bibbery,  etc. 
"     9.  EXEANDRIA — nine  stamens — Laurel 
"   10.  DECANDRIA — ten  stamens — Gilliflower,  Rue. 
"    11.  DODECANDRIA— with  from  twelve  to  nineteen  stamens— Mig 

nionette. 
"   12.  ICOSANDRIA — twenty  or  more  stamens,  inserted  on  the  calyx 

— Apple,  Rose. 
"   13.  POLYANDRIA — stamens  twenty  and  upwards,  inserted  on  the 

receptacle — Poppy,  Linden. 

These  orders  are  characterized  by  the  number  of  the 
pistils.     Also  by  one,  two,  or  more  stigmas. 

2.  The  stamens  free  and  of  unequal  lengths. 

CLASS  14.  DIDTNAMIA — four  stamens,  two  longer  than  the  others — 
Lion's  Mouth,  and  distinguished  by  having  the  seed  free  or 
covered. 

"     15.  TETRADYNAMIA — six  stamens,  four  longer  than  the  others — 
Cress,  Stock,  Gilliflower,  etc. 

This  order  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the  seed-pod. 

3.  The  stamens  adherent  to  each  other  in  one  fascicle. 
a — Adherent  with  one  another,  or  to  the  pistil,  in  two 

fascicles. 

CLASS  16.  MONADELPEIA — filaments  united — Mallow. 

"     17.  DIADELPHIA — stamens  divided  into  two  bundles — Butterfly 

Weed,  or  Aselipias. 
"    18.  POLYDELPHIA — several  bundles  of  stamens  adherent — St. 

John's-wort. 

These  orders  were  arranged  according  to  the  number 
of  their  stamens. 

a — Anthers  adherent ;  stamens  free. 

CLASS  19.  SYXGENESIA — five  stamens,  united  by  their  anthers ;  flowers 
collected  into  a  common  involucre  or  envelope — Lettuce, 
Thistle. 

This  class  is  determined  in  proportion  to  its  fertility. 


214  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

c — The  stamens  united  to  the  pistil. 

CLASS  20.  GvjfAjfDRiA — has  six  stamens,  forming  a  single  body  with 
the  pistil — Arum,  Calla. 

b — Separate  races. 

CLASS  21.  MOXCECIA — Male  and  female  flowers  on  the  same  stem — In- 
dian Corn,  Pink. 

"  22.  DIOECA— male  and  female  flowers  on  two  different  individual 
plants — Wood,  Hemp. 

"  23.  POLYGASIJA — sometimes  male,  and  at  others,  female  or  her- 
maphrodite flowers,  on  one,  two,  or  three  individual  plants. 
To  these  belong  the  Maple,  Ash,  and  Fig. 

These  orders  are  regulated  according  to  the  number 
and  relative  adhesions  of  their  stamens. 

B — Unprovided  with  nowers3  or  else  the  bloom  is  so 
small  as  not  to  be  discernible. 

CLASS  24.  CRYPTOGAMIA — Fern,  Moss,  Lichens,  Mushrooms. 

This  arrangement  into  classes  by  Linnseus*  has  the 
one  great  advantage,  namely,  that  every  plant  by  it  may 
be  recognized  in  its  proper  place.  Nevertheless,  there 
are  some  disadvantages  ;  for  instance,  the  accidental  sep- 
aration of  the  stamens  or  anthers  from  each  other  may 
cause  some  confusion  in  certain  genera.  This  method, 
although  simple  and  elegant,  is  avowedly  artificial,  and 
therefore  we  present  to  our  readers  the  natural  distribu- 
tion of  the  families  of  plants  by  De  Candolle,  still  re- 
taining the  classification  of  Linnoeus.  In  order  to  avoid 

*  "  The  sexual  system  of  Linnaeus  lays  no  claim  to  the  merit  of 
being  a  natural  arrangement  Its  sole  aim  is  to  assist  in  determining 
any  described  plant  by  analytical  examination,  and  nothing  can  be 
more  simple  than  the  first  eleven,  as  the  stamens  need  only  to  be 
counted  in  order  to  distinguish  them. — CYCLO.  AM. 


PLANTS.  215 

repetition,  we  substitute  signs  for  words,  and  thus  secure 
brevity.* 

Q  Annual  Plants. 

$  Biennial  Plants. 

U  Perennial  Plants. 

8  Shrubs  or  Trees. 


*  Botanists  have  successively  employed  different  artificial  systems 
and  natural  methods  in  the  classification  of  plants.  "We  therefore  intro- 
duce to  the  notice  of  our  readers  three  synoptic  tables,  as  arranged 
by  the  three  celebrated  naturalists,  namely,  Linnaeus,  De  Candolles( 
and  Jussieu.  Linnaeus's  method  has  been  already  mentioned.  The 
learned  and  sagacious  Jussieu,  who  first  -elaborated  and  published  a 
natural  system,  in  1798,  arranged  the  vegetable  kingdom  in  fifteen 
classes  and  one  hundred  orders  or  families.  Endlicher,  in  1840,  gives 
no  less  than  ^sixty-one  classes,  and  two  hundred  and  seventy-seven 
orders,  with  tribes  and  sub-tribes  almost  innumerable. 

In  an  exposition  of  the  natural  system,  some  authors  (Jussieu  and 
Endlicher)  commence  with  the  lower  extremity  of  the  series,  and  end 
with  the  higher ;  others,  as  Candolle,  pursue  the  opposite,  beginning 
with  the  most  perfect  flowering  plants,  and  concluding  with  the  lowest 
grade  of  flowering  plants.  The  first  mode  possesses  the  advantage  of 
ascending  by  successive  steps  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complex 
structure ;  the  second,  that  of  passing  from  the  most  complete  and 
best  understood  to  the  most  reduced  and  least  known  forms  ;  or,  in 
other  words,  from  the  easiest  to  the  most  difficult,  and  is,  therefore, 
the  best  plan  for  the  student.— PROF.  GRAY.— TV. 


216 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


NATURAL   SYSTEM   OF   DE  CANDOLLES. 


217 


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PLANTS.  219 

FIRST  DIVISION. 
VASCULAR    PLANTS. 

These  plants  are  provided  with  vessels  and  cellular 
tissue.  The  germ  is  enveloped  in  one  or  more  layers. 

CLASS  I. 
E  X  O  G  E  IT  M. 

The  vascular  organs,  sap-wood,  or  alburnum,  are  com- 
posed of  one  or  more  concentric  rings  or  layers,  the 
youngest  of  which  is  always  next  the  external  covering. 
Envelopes  of  germ  in  a  whorl. 

A. — Provided  with  double  flower- envelopes,  that  is, 
consisting  of  both  calyx  and  corolla ;  petals  separate  from 
each  other. 

SUB-CLASS  I. 

Seed  bearing.  Flower  polypetalous ;  the  petals  in- 
serted on  the  calyx. 

FIRST  DIVISION. 

- 

Many  fruit  ov11     Contained  in  one  flower,  or  with  the 

anth&;  and'curea  >  'dge  °f  the  fl™er' 

*>«•*- '-T'-PAMILY. — jiAXUXCUL^  have  mostly  weak  and 
flexible  stems,  often  climbers  or  creepers,  are  warmly 
aromatic  plants,  containhig"a  juice  which  acts  as  an  acrid 
narcotic  poison. 

The  Common  Buttercup  (Ranunculus  acris)  is  found 
abundantly  in  meadows ;  leaves  notched,  flowers  brilliant 


220  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

gold  color,  giving  the  fields  a  gay  appearance ;  blooms  in 
May  or  June  ;  many  call  it  buttercup.  As  it  is  very 
acrid,  it  is  bad  food  for  cattle,  and  as  a  troublesome  weed, 
very  detrimental  to  the  meadows.  By  boiling,  it  loses 
its  acrid  property.  The  garden  ranunculus  is  considered 
quite  ornamental,  but  there  are  many  wild  plants  belong- 
ing to  this  species,  which  are  very  poisonous.  2£.  Class 
13,  Linn. 

Tall  Crow  Foot  (Ranunculus  ficarius).  Leaves  heart- 
shaped,  lanciniate,  somewhat  fleshy ;  roots  tuberculated ; 
flowers  yellow,  with  from  eight  to  ten  petals.  Found  in 
spring ;  very  common  in  woods.  Leaves  and  tubers  eat- 
able ;  the  last,  when  washed  out  by  the  rain,  has  a  sweet 
taste,  and  obtained  for  itself  the  very  popular  name  of 
Rain  Manna. 

The  Wood  Anemone  or  Wind  Flower  (Anemone 
nemorosa),  Linn.  Leaves  tripartite  with  lancet-shaped, 
acuminate  tips  ;  flowers  whitish.  Found  everywhere  in 
woods  in  March  and  April :  is  acrid  and  often  injurious 
to  cattle  grazing  where  it  grows.  It .  A  species  consid- 
ered ornamental  is  cultivated  in  gardens. 

Virgin's  Bower  (Clematis  vitalba),  Linn.  Leaves 
tailed,  feathered,  and  deeply  notched;  the  stalk  flexible 
and  climbing.  Frequent  in  moist  woodlands  and  thick- 
ets, clinging  to  supports  by  its  petiolate  leaves ;  the  flow- 
ers white  and  umbelliferous. 

The  Pcsony  (Pseonia  officinalis).  CoreJJa  full-leaved  ; 
petals  leaf-shaped,  numbering  from  five  to  tea:  flat,  red 
mostly,  but  sometimes  sprinkled  with  white,  and  from 
two  to  five  germ  buds.  Leaves  feathered  ;  fruit-pods 
felt-like.  This  handsome  plant  grows  wild  on  the  rocky 
hills  of  southern  Europe,  but  is  cultivated  in  gardens  for 
sake  of  its  beauty.  Blooming  in  May  or  June,  the 


PLANTS.  221 

root,  although  acrid  and  poisonous,  is  used  in  medi- 
cine.* 2£. 

Devil  in  a  Bush — Love  iti  Mist  (Nigella  damascena) 
has  a  smooth  branching  stem  ;  flowers  covered  with  a 
kind  of  veil ;  seed  enclosed  in  five  separate  capsules. 
Grows  wild  in  the  south  of  France  and  Italy ;  cultivated 
farther  north  in  gardens ;  flowers  are  white,  blue,  and 
greenish ;  blooms  in  June  and  August.  O  •  Sometimes 
called  Ragged  Lady. 

The  Lark  Spur  (Delphimim  ajacis),  calyx  petaloid,f 
corolla!  undeveloped,  upper  sepal  or  leaflet  produced  into 
a  spur  at  base.  Flower  petals  .four,  the  two  upper  with 
a  spur -shaped  appendage  at  base,  enclosed  in  the  spur  of 
the  calyx.  Buds  blue  and  grape-like  ;  stem  grows  to  a 
height  of  three  feet ;.  is  found  single,  but  the  petals  are 
often  multiplied  into  double  flowers.  O  and  $  . 

SECOND  FAMILY. — MAGNOLIACE^:,  to  which  belongs 

The  Tulip  Tree  (Liriodendron  tulipifera),  a  large 
and  beautiful  tree,  growing  to  a  great  thickness.  Sepals^ 
three,  caducous||  corolla  campanulate ;  petals  mostly  six, 
yellow  and  green,  at  base  red.  Blooms  in  July,  and  is 
the  ornament  of  a  garden  as  well  as  of  the  forest,  i? . 
Class  13,  Linn. 

The  Stellated  Anise  (Illicium  anisatum)  grows  in 
China,  Japan,  and  the  Philippines  ;  somewhat  like  a 

*  The  physician  Paeon,  according  to  mythology,  first  used  this  plant 
in  medicine,  and  cured  Pluto  with  it. — Tr. 

f  Petal-like. 

^  Corolla,  the  delicate  inner  covering  of  the  flower  between  calyx 
and  stamens. 

§  Leaflets  of  calyx — sepal — distinct  portion  of  calyx ;  sepaloid 
green  and  not  petal-like. 

|  Caducous — falling  off  readily.  Corolla-flower — campanulate — 
bell  or  tulip-shaped. 


222  NATTJKAL   HISTORY. 

cherry  tree ;  the  leaves  resemble  those  of  the  rose  bay. 
but  are  softer.  The  blossoms  or  flowers  are  much  like 
those  of  the  narcissus ;  are  composed  of  thirty  yellow 
petals,  twenty  short  stamens,  and  eight  pistils.  The 
fruit  is  the  well  known  anise.' 

THIRD  FAMILY. — MEXISPERMACE^E. — The  Common 
Moonseed  (Menispermum  cocculus).  Stem  shrub-like, 
climbing  and  fastening  by  tendrils  ;  branching  out  pro- 
fusely ;  leaves  peltate,  heart-shaped,  emarginate,  smooth, 
dark  green  above,  blue-green  and  downy  below :  length 
from  eight  to  twelve  inches.  The  flowers  hang  in  long 
clusters  like  grapes,  measuring  from  one  to  two  feet  in 
length.  The  fruit  is  reddish-purple,  with  a  soft,  fleshy 
envelope,  and  brown  kidney-shaped  seed.  Found  in  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea- 
coast.  The  species  known  as  Cocculus  Indicus,  coming 
to  us  in  a  dried  state,  has  an  oily  and  intensely  bitter 
kernel,  which  contains  an  acrid  narcotic  poison.  These 
kernels  are  used  in  India  as  bait  for  taking  fish,  but  it  is 
a  very  improper  method,  as  the  eating  of  fish,  thus 
caught,  has  proved  very  injurious  ;  being  productive  of 
stupor  to  the  scaly  tribe,  they  are  more  easily  taken  by 
this  bait  than  any  other.  Cocculus  Indicus,  it  is  said,  is 
used  in  England  in  the  manufacture  of  porter.  Some- 
times called  Fishing  Berries. 

FOURTH  FAMILY. — BARBERIDACE^E. — Common  Bar- 
berry or  Sour  Thorn  (Berberis  vulgaris)  is  a  shrub 
growing  to  a  height  of  nine  feet ;  leaves  ovate  and  ser- 
rate ;  calyx  consists  of  six  sepals ;  flowers  yellow,  with 
six  petals ;  grow  in  drooping  racemes  ;*  the  stamens,  if 

*  Raceme — a  mode  of  flowering  by  which  the  common  peduncle 
(foot-stalk  or  flower-stem)  is  elongated  with  the  flowers  on  short,  lat- 
eral, simple  pedicles. — Tr. 


PLANTS.  223 

touched  by  a  needle,  instantly  draw  up  or  contract. 
Blooms  in  May  or  June  ;  bears  a  scarlet  berry  in  Sep- 
tember, is  juicy  and  acid,  but  very  pleasant  to  the  taste. 
This  juice  pressed,  strained,  and  boiled  with  sugar,  makes 
a  refreshing  syrup.  The  fine  yellow  wood  is  used  for 
inlaying ;  the  bark  of  the  root  furnishes  a  yellow  dye. 
It  grows  spontaneously  in  the  hedges  almost  everywhere 
in  Europe.  2£.  Class  6,  Linn. 

SECOND  DIVISION. 

Fruit  mostly  of  a  one-celled  pod  or  capsule ;  stigmas 
persistent  or  permanent. 

FIFTH  FAMILY. — PAPAVERAC^E,  —  Class  13,  L.  The 
Common  Poppy  (Papaver  somniferum).  The  calyx  is 
composed  of  two  sepals  and  drooping ;  corolla  of  four 
petals,  when  cultivated  has  many  more.  The  seed  pod 
is  as  large  as  a  moderate-sized  apple,  and  divided  into 
incomplete  partitions,  upon  which  is  a  sessile  cicatrice, 
radiating  from  the  summit.  Stalk  upright  ;  leaves 
smooth,  fleshy,  and  blue-green.  The  Poppy  is  originally 
from  the  East,  and  on  account  of  the  oily  juice  contained 
in  its  fine  white  albuminous  seed,  is  cultivated  in  Europe 
and  elsewhere.  There  are  some  species  in  which  the 
seed  is  black.  If  an  incision  is  made  into  the  unripe 
capsule  a  milky  juice  is  seen  to  flow,  which,  on  being 
dried,  turns  brown,  is  well  known  as  opium,  and  acts  as 
a  narcotic  poison.  Q. 

The  Corn  Poppy  (Papaver  rhceas),  Endl.  German, 
Klatschrose,  is  branching  and  bristly;  leaves  divided;* 
flowers  bright  red,  and  most  frequently  found  growing 
among  grain.  The  capsule  is  about  as  large  as  a  hazel- 

*  Pinaately  dissected. — TV. 


224  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

nut.  The  petals  are  used  in  infusion  as  a  narcotic  or 
rather  anodyne.  O- 

The  Celandine  (Chelidonium  majus).  Leaves  are 
pinnate,  and  divided  into  feathery  lobes ;  calyx  has  two 
sepals ;  carolla  four  petals ;  flowers  yellow  and  hang  in 
umbels ;  blooms  from  May  to  September.  Found  every- 
where by  walls  and  hedgerows ;  yields  a  deep  yellow 
juice,  the  course  of  which,  if  the  plant  be  viewed  with 
a  magnifying-glass,  can  be  distinctly  seen  as  it  circulates 
through  stem  and  leaf.  After  flowering,  it  bears  a  pod 
in  which  is  the  seed. 

SIXTH  FAMILY. — FUMATORIA. — Class  17,  Linn. 

The  Common  Fumatory  (Fumaria  officinalis)  is  a  small 
branching,  climbing  plant,  with  leaves  dissected  and 
many  cleft ;  flowers  beautiful  flesh  color,  blooming  in 
clusters.  It  has  a  bitter  flavor,  but  is  considered  good 
fodder  for  sheep.  O- 

Cory  dolls  (Corydalis  solida).  Calyx  has  mostly  two 
sepals,  sometimes  altogether  wanting.  Only  one  of  the 
four  petals — the  upper  posterior  one — is  spurred.  The 
middle  anther  of  every  fascicle,  or  little  bundle,  are 
double,  the  others  single ;  fruit  pod  like  that  of  the 
poppy,  but  not  separated  into  compartments,  many  seeded 
and  bivalved.  Grows  among  hedgerows. 

SEVENTH  FAMILY. — CRUCIFER^E. — Class  15,  Linn. 

The  Water  Cress  (Nasturtium  officinale)  has  a  diffuse, 
hollow  stem,  spreading  root-like  along  the  ground.  The 
leaves  are  heart-shaped,  flowers  -white,  and  the  pods 
cylindrical.  The  leaves  are  very  juicy,  have  a  pungent 
bitter  taste,  nevertheless  they  afford  a  palatable  and 
healthful  article  of  food,  and  are  used  as  salad.  Grows 
in  ditches  and  brooks,  and  blooms  in  June  and  Au- 
gust, h. 


PLANTS.  225 

The  Common  Meadow  Cress  or  Cuckoo  Flower 
(Cardamine  pratensis),  L.,  has  pinnate,  feathery  leaves, 
and  reddish-white  flowers ;  bears  seed  pods  an  inch  long. 
Found  everywhere  in  meadows.  O. 

The  Gillljlower  (Cheiranthus  annuus)  has  a  shrub- 
like  or  ligneous  stem  -r  leaves  lanceolate  and  indented ; 
grows  a  foot  high  ;  flowers  red  and  white,  sometimes 
single,  at  others  double ;  often  cultivated  in  gardens.  6  . 
There  is  a  species  greatly  resembling  this,  called  the 
Winter  Gilliflower. 

The  Black  Mustard  (Sinapis  nigra),  Tournef.  The 
leaves  are  attached  to  the  stem  by  foot- stalks  four  inches 
long  and  two  broad  ;  the  flowers  yellow.  The  pod  meas- 
ures about  an  inch,  and  contains  from  four  to  six  brown 
seeds.  Grows  in  fields  and  waste  places ;  blooms  in  July 
and  August ;  is  frequently  cultivated.  The  seed  is  valued 
on  account  of  its  pungent  aromatic  taste,  and  mixed  with 
vinegar,  etc.,  is  used  as  a  condiment  with  beef.  It  is 
also  valuable  for  its  vesicating  properties,  and  much  used 
for  foot-baths  and  blisters ;  is  of  as  much  importance  to 
the  physician  as  the  cook.  Resembling  this  but  weaker, 
is  the  White  Mustard ;  the  seeds  of  both,  by  being 
pressed,  may  be  made  to  yield  a  mild  oil,  used  also  for 
vesication.  O. 

The  Cabbage  (Brassica  oleracea),  De  Cand.,  has  fleshy 
leaves ;  flowers  of  pale  yellow ;  the  stalk  from  three  to 
four  feet  high ;  branching ;  pods  from  two  to  three  inches 
long ;  the  seed  very  dark  brown.  Cabbage  was  origin- 
ally brought  from  Greece,  where  it  still  grows  wild,  and 
has  produced  many  valuable  species,  which  are  now  cul- 
tivated in  gardens. 

The  White  Cabbage,  of  which  the  leaves  are  mostly 
white,  but  sometimes  red  or  blue,  and  very  broad,  readily 
10* 


226  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

form  themselves  into  a  head.  The  white  cabbage  is  one 
of  the  most  important  vegetables  in  use  among  the  Ger- 
man population.  As  soon  as  the  heads  are  properly 
closed,  which  is  early  in  the  autumn,  it  is  made,  -with 
the  addition  of  salt,  etc.,  into  the  well  known  Sauer- 
kraut.* The  species  most  preferred  for  this  purpose  is 
the  sugar-loaf  cabbage,  and  is  raised  in  great  perfection 
in  the  fields  of  Wurtemberg.  $  . 

Another  species  of  cabbage,  much  esteemed,  is  the 
White  and  Green  Curled  Savoy,  the  leaves  of  which 
are  yellow  and  curled.  Another  of  the  tribe  is  the 
Winter  Cabbage,  with  dark  green,  crisped  leaves ;  both 
are  excellent  vegetables.  The  cauliflower,  which  was 
originally  brought  from  Italy,  is  much  esteemed  ;  it  dif- 
fers from  the  other  species  in  bearing,  in  strong  tufts,  a 
number  of  whitish-yellow,  well-tasted  flowers  or  buds, 
which,  from  their  resemblance  to  a  cheese  curd,  are  often 
called  cheese  cabbages.  $  . 

Broccoli  has  the  same  kind  of  a  head  as  the  cauliflower, 
but  smaller ;  is  of  different  colors,  as  white,  blue,  and 
darkish.  If  the  head  is  cut  off,  the  stem  puts  forth  a 
shoot  which  tastes  like  asparagus ;  sometimes  called 
asparagoides.  $ . 

Caula  Rapa — Bulb-stalked  Cabbage.  This  species 
is  distinguished  by  sub-globose  or  apple-formed  fleshy 
enlargements  on  the  stem  at  the  origin  of  the  leaves, 
which,  together  with  the  latter,  are  used  as  table 
diet.  0. 

Turnip-rooted  Cabbage  (German,  Boden  Kohlrabe], 
is  distinguished  from  the  former  in  having  the  fleshy 


*  Also  what  is  commonly  termed  Cold-slaw,  which  is  a  corruption 
of  Kohl-salat  (German),  cabbage-salad. 


PLANTS.  227 

bulbs  under  the  earth.  These  roots  are  in  common  use, 
and  known  as  the  White  Turnip.  Q. 

The  Common  Turnip  (Brassica  rapa)  differs  from 
cabbage- by  the  bright  green  color  of  the  rough  radical 
leaves,  while  those  of  the  stem  are  blue-green,  and 
smooth.  The  principal  specimens  of  this  genus  are  the 
common  white  turnip,  and  the  Ruta  Baga  or  Swedish 
turnip,  which  are  raised  everywhere  and  used  as  a  table 
vegetable,  as  well  as  food  for  cattle.  Planted  or  sowed 
as  grain  on  stubbles.  A  sub-species  is  the  Teltowa 
Turnip.  Q . 

The  Rape  (Brassica  oleitera)  has  broad,  heart-shaped 
leaves  and  yellow  flowers  •  grows  wild  in  Sicily  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Naples,  but,  brought  to  Middle 
Europe,  is  cultivated  for  sake  of  the  oil  furnished  by 
the  seed,  which  is  useful  to  burn  in  lamps  and  for  greas- 
ing wool  preparatory  to  carding.  Q. 

The  Radish  (Raphanus  sativus)  has  long,  lyrate,  rough 
leaves  and  cylindrical,  pendulous  seed  pods.  Came  ori- 
ginally from  China,  but  has  been  cultivated  since  ancient 
times  in  Europe.  Root  large  and  fusiform,  white,  red, 
and  frequently  black.  Has  a  pleasant  taste,  although 
pungent,  and,  some  say,  assist  digestion.  O-  There 
are  many  different  species. 

The  Garden  Cress  (Lepidium  sativum).  Pepper- 
grass.  Leaves  variously  incised  and  divided  into  linear 
segments ;  pods  oval.  Grows  wild  in  the  East,  but  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States  is  cultivated  in  gardens  ; 
blooms  in  June  and  July  ;  has  a  pleasant,  though  pun- 
gent taste,  and  is  used  by  many  as  salad.  O. 

The  Woad  (Isatis  tinctoria)  has  a  smooth  stalk ;  stem- 
leaves  are  arrow-shaped,  radical  or  root-leaves  wedge- 
like.  Blooms  in  a  panicle  or  raceme,  has  small  yellow 


228  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

flowers,  and,  as  it  yields  a  blue  dye,  it  is  frequently  cul- 
tivated. $  . 

The  Shepherd's  Purse  (Thlaspi  bursa  pastoris),  upper 
or  stem-leaves  sagittate,  radical  or  lower  feathered  •  seed 
pods  heart-shaped  ;  flowers  white  ;  petals  small.  Grows 
everywhere  in  fields  or  on  road-sides  as  a  weed  ;  never- 
theless it  is  said  to  be  good  food  for  sheep. 

The  Jericho  Rose  (Anastatica  hierochuntica).  Leaves 
ovate  and  notched ;  white  flowers  without  peduncles  ; 
seed-pods  hairy.  This  plant  is  found  growing  in  the 
sand  in  Palestine,  Arabia,  and  Egypt ;  if  dried  for  an 
herbarium,  etc.,  it  rolls  its  branches  together  like  a  ball, 
but  many  believe  after  being  kept  a  year  and  a  day,  if  it 
is  placed  in  water,  it  will  spread  forth  as  if  to  life  again. 
The  superstitious  regard  it  as  a  miracle,  and  from  pecu- 
liar signs  accompanying  this  singular  faculty,  predict 
whether  the  coming  year  will  be  fruitful  or  not. 

The  Scurvy  Grass  (Cochlearia  officinalis).  Radical 
leaves  petiolate  and  heart-shaped ;  flowers  white ;  pods 
bullet-like ;  stem-leaves  oblong.  Grows  abundantly  on 
the  sea-coasts  of  northern  Europe  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  salt  springs  ;  has  a  sharp,  bitter  taste,  and  is 
eaten — mixed  with  other  vegetables — as  salad.  Consid- 
ered as  a  specific  in  all  diseases  of  the  mouth,  and  partic- 
ularly the  scurvy,  to  which  sailors  are  subject  from  the 
constant  use  of  salted  meat,  it  is  much  valued.  It  is  oc- 
casionally planted  in  gardens.  $  . 

The  Horse  Radish  (Cochlearia  armoracia).  The  root 
is  thick,  long,  fleshy,  and  branching ;  the  stem  upright, 
with  lanceolate  leaves  ;  the  pods  small  and  egg-shaped. 
It  is  cultivated  in  gardens  everywhere ;  the  root,  which 
is  the  part  eaten,  is  exceedingly  pungent,  and  is  much 
esteemed  as  a  condiment  for  meats.  Z[. 


PLANTS.  229 

EIGHTH  FAMILY. — CAPARIDACEJS  are  shrubs  or  trees 
with  four-leaved  flowers  and  six  or  more  stamens ;  many 
of  them  bear  berries.  (Class  13,  L.)  The  most  remark- 
able is 

The  Caper  Bush  (Capparis  spinosa),  an  ornamental 
shrub,  from  the  flexible  branches  of  which  hang  tender, 
pale-green,  ovate  leaves  and  light-red,  or  white,  poppy- 
like  flowers.  They  grow  in  thickets  under  city  walls  or 
on  slopes  in  southern  Europe  ;  the  buds  are  plucked  off, 
laid  for  a  few  hours  exposed  to  the  air  in  the  shade,  and 
pickled  with  salt  and  vinegar.  As  their  use  is  said  to 
promote  the  digestion,  they  are  highly  valued  as  a 
condiment.  The  bushes  die  down  to  the  root  every 
year.  h. 

NINTH  FAMILY.— BIXINA.— (Class  13,  L.)  To  this 
belongs 

The  Orleans  Tree  (Bixa  orellana),  and  is  rather  a 
shrub  than  a  tree,  being  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut 
bush,  which  is  cultivated  in  the  damp  grounds  of  the  East 
and  West  Indies.  The  handsome  green  leaves  are  heart- 
shaped  ;  flowers  flesh-color ;  and  the  fruit,  round  and  of 
the  size  of  a  chestnut,  contain  about  forty  seeds,  each  as 
large  as  a  pea.  They  are  surrounded  by  a  red-colored 
fluid,  from  which  the  color  known  as  annotto  or  nankeen 
color  is  made.  h. 

TENTH  FAMILY. — VIOLACEOUS  PLANTS. — (Class  5, 
L.)  The  first  is 

The  Violet  (Viola  odorata).  Has  broad,  heart-shaped 
leaves,  with  five  unequal  flower  petals,  of  which  the 
lower  is  spurred.  The  flowers  are  blue,  odoriferous, 
and  furnished  with  a  footstalk.  This  well  known  and 
favorite  plant  grows  everywhere  among  the  grass,  by 
hedges  and  under  shade ;  blooms  in  March  and  April, 


230  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

and  sometimes  a  second  time,  in  Autumn.  A  pleasant 
perfume  is  extracted  from  the  flowers,  and  also  an  essence 
which  is  said  to  relieve  pain,  h . 

The  Dog  Violet  is  distinguished  by  its  paler  color  and 
the  entire  want  of  odor. 

The  Tri-colored  Violet  (Viola  tricolor)  has  leaves 
longist  and  dentated ;  flowers  tri-colored ;  petals  varied, 
violet,  blue,  yellow,  or  white;  the  lower  one  yellow, 
marked  with  seven  dark  purple  stripes.  This  favorite 
and  ornamental  flower  grows  everywhere,  and,  blooming 
throughout  the  whole  summer,  may  be  called  the  pride 
of  the  garden ;  is  known  also  by  the  names  of  Pansy 
and  Heart's  Ease.  The  Germans  prepare  from  it  a 
decoction  said  to  be  useful  in  purifying  the  blood.  Q 
and  <*. 

The  Dyers  Weed  or  Weld  (Roseda  luteola)  grows 
everywhere,  on  dust  heaps  or  by  waysides;  the  leaves 
are  lanceolate ;  flowers  arranged  in  a  long  spike,  stand 
upright,  and  have  from  twenty  to  twenty-four  stamens ; 
cattle  avoid  this  plant  on  account  of  its  bitterness,  but  as 
it  yields  a  fine  yellow  dye,  it  is  cultivated.  Found  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States. 

The  Mignionette  (Reseda  odorata)  resembles  the  fore- 
going ;  the  flowers  are  delightfully  odoriferous,  and  the 
plant  itself,  by  no  means  acrid,  is  eagerly  eaten  by 
Canary  birds.  Native  of  Egypt.  Both  belong  to  Class 
11,  L. 

THIRD  DIVISION*. 

With  single  fruit  pods,  seed  bearers  upright  in  the 
middle. 

ELEVENTH  FAMILY. — Genus  CARYOPHYLLACE.E.  Ca- 


PLANTS.  231 

lyx  tubular  and  serrated.  (Class  10,  L.)  The  species 
most  noted  is 

The  Garden  Pink  (Dianthus  caryophyllus),  also 
termed  Clove  Pink  or  Carnation.  Calyx  covered  with 
short  scales ;  five  petals ;  long  claws,  unequally  notched ; 
originally  a  native  of  Italy,  but  now  cultivated  every- 
where, and  valued  by  florists  for  its  fragrance  and  beau- 
ty. The  leaves  are  pale  green ;  the  color  of  the  flower 
was  originally  red,  but,  by  careful  culture,  is  now  found 
of  every  variety  of  hue.  The  odor  of  this  beautiful  child 
of  Flora  is  delightful,  and  florists  engage  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  Pink  with  an  ardor  amounting  to  passion. 
The  most  conspicuous  specimens  of  the  whole  race,  of 
which  the  Carnation  is  supposed  the  parent,  are  the 
Dianthus  Barbatus  or  Sweet  William,  the  Armaria 
or  Wild  Pink,  Plumarius  Pheasant's  Eye,  and  Di- 
anthus Superbus,  etc.  2£. 

The  Saponaria  (Saponaria  officinalis),  vulgarly  known 
as  Bouncing  Bet  or  Soapwort,  has  lanceolate  leaves  in- 
clining to  elliptical ;  flowers  growing  in  tufts,  handsome 
and  flesh-colored,  with  ten  stamens  and  two  styles. 
Grows  in  fields,  by  roadsides,  or  in  gardens  ;  stem 
from  one  to  two  feet  high  ;  the  saponaceous  juice  found 
in  the  root  can  be  used  as  soap.  It  has  a  bitter  taste, 
and  is  often  employed  as  medicine.  2£ . 

The  Cuckoo  Flower — Ragged  Robin  (Lychnis  flos 
cuculi)  ;  stem  rough  and  upright ;  leaves  lanceolate  and 
smooth  ;  calyx  wedge-shaped  and  ten-ribbed  ;  petals 
divided  into  segments  formed  like  a  hand;  color  red, 
sometimes  very  pale,  but  seldom  white.  Very  common 
in  meadows  or  gardens. 

The  Corn  Cockle  (Lychnis  githago),  cultivated  Rose 
Campion,  is  rough,  with  small,  woolly  leaves,  reddish- 


232  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

purple  flowers ;  ten  stamens,  five  pistils ;  seeds  small, 
black  and  angular.  This  handsome  weed  grows  in 
wheat  fields  often  two  or  three  feet  high ;  is  a  great 
nuisance  to  farmers,  as  it  makes  the  flour  blue  and  the 
bread  bitter.  2£.* 

TWELFTH  FAMILY. — LINAGES. — FLAXWORTS. — Class 
5,  L. 

Flax  (Linum  usitatissimum)  has  small,  lanceolate  leaves, 
of  a  beautiful  green  color ;  stem  upright,  flowers  large 
and  blue ;  flower  petals  oval  shaped,  somewhat  twisted. 
This  useful  plant  grows  wild  or  among  grain  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  but  was  largely  cultivated  in  the  north,  until 
nearly  superseded  by  cotton.  The  flowers  close  in  the 
evening ;  the  capsules  are  five-celled  and  globose ;  seeds 
mucilaginous  and  oily,  are  employed  in  medicine,  and 
yield  the  Unseed  oil  so  extensively  used  in  mixing  paint, 
printer's  ink,  varnishes,  etc.  The  fibers  of  the  bark, 
very  strong  and  fine,  are  manufactured  into  linen.  O- 
There  are  inferior  species,  such  as  Linum  Riyidum, 
Linum  Virginianum,  flowers  yellow,  and  Linum  Diffu- 
sum,  found  on  wet  prairies. 

THIRTEENTH  FAMILY. — MALVACEAE. — (J.,  L.,  C.  16.) 
This  genus  is  composed  of  plants  or  shrubs.  A  some- 
what important  class  of  plants,  forming  about  one  fiftieth 
of  all  the  flowering  plants  of  tropical  valleys.  In  the 
Northern  States  they  are  all  herbs.  The  most  important 
product  of  the  order  is  Cotton.  The  fruit  is  composed 
of  twelve  carpels  arranged  circularly  around  the  calyx ; 
the  children  sportively  call  them  cheeses,  a  name  very 
naturally  suggested  by  their  form.  The  Hibiscus  and 


*  The  Scarlet  Lychnis,  Ragged   Robin,   Chinese  Lychnis,  found 
both  in  Europe  auJ  the  Uuited  States,  belong  to  this  family. 


PLANTS.  233 

Lavateria  belong  also  to  the  Mallow  tribe,  and,  although 
foreigners,  are  now  extensively  naturalized. 

The  Low  Mallow  (Malva  rotundifolia)  is  a  small  plant 
with  delicate,  roundish,  heart-shaped  leaves,  white  flow- 
ers, veined  with  purple ;  grows  spontaneously  in  fields, 
or  by  roadsides,  and  found  everywhere.  The  whole 
plant  is  mucilaginous ;  the  seeds  are  brown  and  kidney- 
shaped.  K. 

The  Harsh  Hallow  (Altheae  officinalis).  The  stem 
is  upright,  growing  to  a  height  of  three  or  four  feet,  cov- 
ered with  thick,  woolly  down ;  leaves  velvet-like,  round, 
and  heart-shaped.  This  useful  plant  grows  wild  in  the 
damp  grounds  of  southern  Europe;  in  Germany  it  is 
cultivated  on  account  of  its  medicinal  properties;  the 
flowers  are  of  a  pale  flesh  color,  the  root,  about  the  size 
of  a  finger  in  thickness,  as  well  as  the  other  parts  of  the 
plant,  abounds  in  mucilage,  and  is  used  not  only  as  a 
specific  in  obstinate  coughs,  but  as  an  emollient  to  pro- 
mote suppuration.  2£. 

Much  resembling  it  is 

The  Rose  Mallow,  Harvest  Rose  or  Hollyhock  (Al- 
thea  rosea),  L.,  which  grows  above  a  height  of  six 
feet ;  stem  hairy ;  flowers,  springing  out  like  ears  of 
corn  from  the  stalk,  are  mostly  dark  red ;  but  there  are 
numerous  varieties  of  color,  as  well  as  single,  double,  or 
semi-double  flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  the  East.  6  . 

The  Cotton  Plant  (Gossypium  album),  plate  28,  fig. 
3,  is  a  shrub  with  a  cup-shaped  calyx ;  leaves  pointed, 
and  from  three  to  five-lobed ;  stem  from  two  to  four  feet 
high,  rough,  and  dark  spotted ;  the  flowers  are  large,  and 
of  a  fine  yellow  hue ;  seeds  white,  numerous,  and  envel- 
oped in  a  long  white  wool,  are  hidden  within  a  capsule 
of  parchment-like  texture,  which,  when  the  plant  has 


234  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

arrived  at  maturity,  bursts  with  a  slight  report.  Al- 
though cotton  is  a  native  of  Persia  and  the  East  Indies, 
it  is  now  cultivated  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  forms  a 
most  important  object  of  American  agriculture.  It 
requires  a  good  soil,  and  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds.  In 
October,  when  the  pods,  fully  ripe,  have  burst  open, 
they  are  pulled,  and  left  to  dry.  The  cotton  is  then 
picked  out,  freed  from  seeds,  packed  in  large  bales,  and 
sent  forth  as  a  valuable  article  of  commerce.  There  is 
another  family  of  the  cotton  plant,  having  black  seeds, 
and  yellow  wool,  from  which  the  genuine  nankeen  is 
made.  h. 

FOURTEENTH  FAMILY. — NUCIFERA. — (CLASS  18,  L.) 
We  shall  only  mention  one  of  this  class. 

The  Cocoa-nut  tree  (Theobroma  cacao).  This  tree, 
which  seldom  reaches  a  height  of  twenty  feet,  is  a  native 
of  America ;  the  branches  are  slender ;  the  leaves,  of 
a  light  green  color,  are  about  a  span  in  length,  and  have 
a  very  long  foot-stalk ;  the  flowers  are  small  and  white  ; 
fruit,  at  first  dark  yellow,  but,  when  ripe,  spotted  with 
brown :  grows  principally  on  the  stem  and  larger  branches ; 
resembles  a  melon  in  form  ;  contains  a  sweet,  succulent, 
marrow-like  substance,  in  wbich  are  found  from  thirty  to 
forty  kernels,  about  tbe  size  of  a  large  bean,  and  of  a 
pale  violet  color.  Taken  from  the  nuts,  these  seeds  are 
left  lying  in  heaps  for  a  few  days,  in  order  to  foment. 
Their  color  is  now  changed  to  a  reddish-brown,  in  which 
state  they  are  ready  for  exportation,  and  being  almost 
entirely  oleaginous,  are  called'  Cocoa  Butter.  The  Car- 
accas  cocoa  is  considered  best,  as  it  is  more  aromatic,  and 
less  greasy.  It  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  lighter 
color.  Moreover,  if  the  cocoa-beans  are  mealy  and  bitter, 
they  are  roasted  over  a  fire,  ground  or  beaten,  and  mixed 


PLANTS.  235 

with  spices  and  sugar,  form  the  article  everywhere  known 
as  Chocolate,  h. 

FIFTEENTH  FAMILY. — TILIAC.-EE  (LINDEN  BLOOMS). 
—(Class  13,  L.) 

The  Common  Lime  tree  (Tilia  europaea),  Torr.,  has 
heart-shaped,  sharp-pointed  leaves.  The  flowers  hang  in 
clusters,  and  have  a  long  leaf  covering,  or  cyme,  which 
is  adherent  to  the  flower  pedicle.  The  fruit  is  globous, 
and  ripens  in  Octobor.  Grows  either  in  forests  or  free 
spaces ;  the  roots  spread  very  widely.  Very  hardy,  the 
trees  of  this  family  often  attain  the  age  of  eight  hundred 
years,  and  measure  more  than  twenty  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence. The  young  trees  will  bear  transplantation  until 
they  reach  the  thirtieth  year.  The  wood,  soft,  light,  and 
tough,  is  much  used  in  cabinet  work  and  by  turners. 
The  young  branches  are  burnt,  and  form  the  crayons 
used  in  drawing ;  also,  the  blue-black  necessary  in  the 
preparation  of  gunpowder,  and  is  considered  the  best 
dentrifice  known.  The  inner  bark  is  very  strong,  and 
from  the  fibres,  first  softened  in  water,  ropes,  mats,  and 
baskets  are  manufactured.  The  flowers  of  the  European 
lime  tree  have  a  pleasant  odor,  and  are  sometimes  used 
as  tea.  They  are  valued  as  food  for  bees,  as  they  impart 
a  pleasant  flavor  to  the  honey.  The  seeds  yield  a  much 
prized  oil,  closely  resembling  that  of  almonds,  h. 

There  are  other  varieties  of  Tilia,  such  as 

The  Linden  (Tilia  americana),  Torr.,  also  known  as 
Pumpkin  tree  or  Basswood ;  differing  little  from  the 
foregoing ;  growing  in  forests,  and  reaching  to  eighty 
feet  in  height.  "Wood  used  in  cabinet  work  and  paneling 
of  carriages.  Another  variety,  found  on  the  banks  of 
the  Mississippi  and  Ohio,  is 

The  Various-Leaved  Linden  (Heterophylla),  Pursh, 


236  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

which  never  grows  higher  than  from  twenty  to  thirty 
feet. 

The  White  Lime  (Tilia  alba),  Mich.,  is  found  in  the 
woods  of  the  Middle  and  Western  States.  Trunk  from 
thirty  to  forty  feet  in  height.  Fibrous  portion  of  inner 
bark  also  used  for  fishing-lines,  nets,  and  rice-bags,  h. 

SIXTEENTH  FAMILY. — CAMELLIA. — (Class  13,  L.) 
Are  small  shrubs  and  trees,  with  simple  leaves,  alternat- 
ing on  the  stalk.  Flowers  consisting  of  five  or  more 
petals.  The  first  of  this  family  is 

The  Tea  Plant  (Thea  chinensis),  plate  28,  fig.  4. 
The  leaves  are  evergreen,  smooth,  lanceolate,  rather  long, 
and  notched ;  the  flowers  stand  singly.  This  well-known 
article  of  commerce  is  divided  into  two  kinds,  namely : 
Green  Tea,  the  leaves  of  which,  being  dried,  are  of  a 
bluish-green,  and  Black,  because  the  leaves  are  brown 
or  black.  This  shrub,  valuable  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves, 
is  a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  and  being  in  general  use 
as  forming  a  favorite  beverage  for  all  classes,  many 
efforts  have  been  made  to  transplant  the  tea  shrub  to 
Brazil,  and  other  provinces  of  South  America.  Its  size 
is  about  the  same  as  that  of  a  currant  bush  ;  very  branch- 
ing ;  the  bark  is  gray,  the  wood  hard ;  the  leaves  num- 
erous, and  of  the  size  and  shape  of  those  of  the  small, 
sour  cherry,  have  very  short  foot-stalks.  The  smallest 
leaves  on  the  top,  the  larger  below ;  the  first  are  consid- 
ered the  best ;  the  latter,  on  being  gathered,  are  divided 
into  five  portions,  which  bring  different  prices,  according 
to  their  quality.  The  flowers  are  white,  without  fra- 
grance, and  much  resemble  the  wild  rose.  The  fruit, 
black,  wood-like,  is  divided  into  three  capsules,  each  of 
which  contains  one  bitter  seed  not  unlike  that  of  the  sloe 
thorn.  The  first  time  of  gathering  is  in  March,  when 


PLANTS.  237 

the  small  leaves,  of  two  or  three  days  growth  only,  are 
pulled.  These,  carefully  dried,  are  the  genuine  imperial 
tea,  which  never,  or  very  rarely,  is  exported  abroad. 
The  second  gathering  is  had  in  April,  and  forms  the  dif- 
ferent and  best  sorts  of  tea  sent  to  other  countries.  The 
third  crop  is  the  common  and  cheap  article  of  commerce, 
and  known  by  various  names.  It  is  said  that  an  infusion 
of  the  fresh  leaves  of  the  tea  plant  affects  the  brain  injur- 
iously ;  therefore,  they  are  at  once  spread  on  tin  plates, 
and  placed  in  kilns  until  they  become  so  hot  that  they 
can  scarcely  be  handled.  After  this  operation,  they  are 
rolled  about  on  mats  made  of  fine  rushes  until  they  are 
cold,  during  which  process  a  green  colored  juice  exudes 
from  them.  Many  believe  that  green  tea  receives  its 
color  from  being  dried  on  plates  of  copper ;  this  is,  how- 
ever, not  true.  The  later  leaves,  which,  when  dried, 
form  the  varieties  of  black  tea,  are  dipped  in  boiling 
water  before  drying.  The  same  process  is  had  as  with 
the  green,  and,  last  of  all,  the  precious  article,  now 
ready  for  use,  is  carefully  put  up  in  boxes  lined  with  tin 
or  pewter.  These  boxes,  however,  are  kept  a  twelve- 
month before  being  exported  or  brought  into  use,  as  the 
tea,  operating  powerfully  on  the  nerves,  is  considered 
dangerous  until  a  year  old.  Tea  has  been  used  as  a  re- 
freshing beverage  in  China  and  Japan  since  the  earliest 
times,  but  was  not  known  in  England  before  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  At  the  present  time  it  is  in 
such  general  use  that  more  than  100,000,000  of  pounds 
are  exported.  Latterly,  however,  it  is  much  adulterated, 
being  mixed  with  leaves  of  the  ash  and  sloe  thorn.  The 
sea  air  is  supposed  to  injure  the  flavor  of  tea  brought  in 
ships ;  therefore,  that  which  is  brought  by  the  caravans, 


238  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

through  Russia  or  bj  the  overland  route,  is  considered 
the  best.  i>. 

The  Camellia  (Camellia  japonica)  is  a  shrub  not  unlike 
the  tea  plant,  and  grows  wild  in  all  the  hedges  in  Japan. 
The  leaves,  pointed,  oval,  and  notched,  are  leathery  but 
smooth  and  shining,  as  if  varnished ;  the  flowers,  con- 
sisting of  five  petals,  are  large  and  beautifully  colored  ; 
the  wood  of  the  stem  is  hard ;  the  seeds  are  contained  in 
a  broad  three-knobbed  capsule,  about  the  size  of  a,  hazel- 
nut;  is  valuable  as  containing  a  considerable  portion  of 
an  essential  oil,  which  is  used  for  many  purposes  in  the 
East;  sometimes  called  the  Japan  rose.  The  colors  are 
various — flesh-colored,  bright  red,  rose  color,  and  white. 
One  of  the  most  beautiful  flowering  plants,  it  is,  with  us, 
of  difficult  cultivation,  requiring  much  skill  and  patience, 
as  well  as  protection  from  the  climate.  There  are  two 
hundred  varieties.  T?. 

SEVENTEENTH  FAMILY. — AURANTIACE.E. — (Class  13, 
L.)  A  noble  genus  of  shrubs  and  trees,  with  fragrant 
fruit  and  odoriferous  flowers.  From  the  latter  is  obtained 
the  oil  of  heroli,  which,  used  in.  composition  of  cologne 
water  arid  other  perfumes,  imparts  its  own  delicious  odor 
to  them. 

The  Lemon  Tree  (Citrus  medica)  is  large  and  lofty ; 
height  twenty  feet ;  bark  smooth  ;  small  branches,  armed 
with  thorns ;  leaves  long  and  acute ;  smooth,  glossy,  and 
parchment-like.  The  flowers  are  violet  color  outside; 
within,  white  and  very  fragrant ;  fruit  egg-shaped,  and 
larger  than  an  apple ;  the  yellow  rind,  thick  and  very 
fragrant,  contains  an  acid  pulp,  the  agreeable  juice  fur- 
nishing the  most  refreshing  drinks,  well  known  as  punch 
and  lemonade.  The  seeds,  whitish-yellow,  are  attached 
to  the  inner  angle  of  the  carpel,  and  vai*y  from  two  to 


PLANTS.  239 

six  in  number.  A  native  of  tropical  Asia,  it  has  been 
transplanted  to  southern  Europe,  and  even  in  the  north 
is  successfully  cultivated  in  conservatories.  The  fruit  is 
seldom  fully  ripe  when  exported,  as  it  decays  readily. 
From  the  less  perfect  lemons,  considered  too  small  for 
commercial  use,  is  prepared  red  citric  and  malic  acids, 
which  are  sent  abroad  in  the  form  of  salts.  }2. 

The  Citron  Tree  bears  a  large  fruit,  filled  with  a 
firm,  sweet,  and  very  palatable  pulp,  and  often  weighs 
ten  pounds ;  the  rind  is  preserved  with  sugar  and  known 
as  candied  orange  peel  or  citron,  much  used  in  confec- 
tionery. 

Limes,  with  their  purple  flowers  and  small,  smooth, 
and  thin-skinned  fruit,  like  large  berries,  and  filled  with 
acid  juice,  are  another  variety.  The  rind  of  one  species, 
called  the  Berffamot,  from  its  resemblance  to  the  Berga- 
mot  pear,  furnishes  the  essential  oil,  called  Essence  of 
Bergamot.  17. 

The  Sweet  Orange  Tree  (Citrus  aurantium)  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  above  described  by  the  petiole  or 
footstalk  of  the  leaves  being  winged ;  the  flowers  are 
white  and  extremely  fragrant.  The  fruit  is  large,  round, 
golden-hued,  very  odorous,  and  filled  with  a  rich,  sweet 
pulp.  When  not  fully  ripe  they  have  a  spicy  bitter 
taste,  make  an  excellent  preserve,  and  prepared  Avith 
sugar,  may  be  used  in  various  ways ;  orange-water  is 
prepared  from  the  flowers. 

The  China  Orange,  with  its  smooth  skin  of  lighter 
color,  has  a  more  spicy  taste,  and  forms  another  variety. 

The  Curacoa  Orange  is  considered  the  best ;  it  is  of 
medium  size,  the  rind  is  thinner,  greener,  and  more 
fragrant :  the  pulp  is  of  a  dark  red  color,  and  filled  with 
juice,  most  refreshing  to  the  taste.  Natives  of  West 


240  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Indies  and  South  America,  h-  According  to  Lindley, 
there  are  t^yenty  thousand  varieties  of  Citrus  Aurantium. 

The  Shaddock  Tree  (Citrus  decumana).  Petioles 
winged ;  leaves  obtuse  or  stumpy ;  the  floAvers  hang  in 
clusters,  and  smell  like  lilies.  The  oblong,  knobbed 
fruit,  often  as  large  as  a  child's  head,  is  of  a  pale  yellow- 
ish-green color ;  often  groAvs  to  the  diameter  of  seven 
to  eight  inches,  and  Aveighs  fourteen  pounds.  The  rind 
is  spongy  and  bitter  ;  the  pulp,  purplish-red,  has  little 
taste.  The  fruit  can  be  kept  a  considerable  time,  but 
only  ripens  perfectly  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  There 
is  a  relative  species,  called  the  Gideons  Apple,  which  is 
three  times  as  large  as  a  lemon ;  the  pulp  has  an  acid, 
but  very  pleasant  flavor.  It  is  often  planted  in  gar- 
dens.* TZ. 

EIGHTEENTH  FAMILY. — HYPERICACE^E. — (Class  18, 
L.)  Are  IOAV  shrubs,  with  reddish-colored  sap  and  yel- 
low floAvers.  The  most  common  species  is 

The  St.  John's  Wort  (Hypericum  perforatum),  Willd. 
Leaves  obtuse  or  often  rather  acute,  Avith  numerous  pel- 
lucid punctures  like  perforations,  and  dotted  Avith  black. 
The  handsome  gold-colored  flowers  are  numerous  and 
arranged  in  terminal  panicles  ;  if  rubbed  so  as  to  extract 
the  juice,  the  fingers  are  colored  red  ;  the  taste  is  bitter 
and  balsam-like.  Considered  medicinal,  the  yelloAV  flow- 
ers rubbed  into  olive  oil  are  used  as  a  remedy  for  burns 
and  wounds.  T?. 

The  species  termed  Hcbradcndron  are  found  only  in 
the  East  Indies  ;  the  juice  of  the  sap,  dried  in  the  sun 

*  Iu  a  splendid  French  work,  written  iu  1818,  there  are  169  varie- 
ties of  the  Aurantiaceae  described.  Sweet  Orange,  42  ;  Bitter,  32  ; 
Bergamots,  5;  Limes,  8;  Shaddocks,  G;  Lumes,  12 ;  Lemons,  48 ; 
Citrons,  1 7.  Cuttings  best  mode  of  cultivation. 


PLANTS.  241 

is  the  well  known  Gamboge,  used  by  painters  in  Aqua- 
relle, and  is  also  of  some  importance  in  medicine  as  a 
purgative. 

NINETEENTH  FAMILY. — HIPPOCASTANACE^:. — BUCK- 
EYE.— (Class  7.  L.)  Are  trees  or  shrubs  with  knotty 
branches  ;  leaves  acute,  dentate,  sometimes  digitate. 

The  Horse  Chestnut  (TEsculus  hippocastanum)  has 
leaves  compound — digitate  by  sevens  and  fives — flowers 
arranged  in  tufts  standing  upright.  This  ornamental 
tree,  often  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  in  height,  with  its 
dark  leaves  throwing  a  deep  shadow  and  its  white  flow- 
ers, spotted  with  red  and  tinged  with  yellow,  presents  in 
spring  a  perfect  specimen  of  rare  and  sylvan  beauty.  A 
native  of  Thibet  and  Northern  India,  it  was  introduced 
into  Europe  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  seeds,  of  the  same  color  as  those  of  the  common 
chestnut,  contain  a  farinaceous  substance,  but  which  can 
not  be  used  on  account  of  its  bitter  taste.  Horses  refuse 
to  eat  it,  but  sheep  feed  on  it  readily.  The  wood  is  used 
by  carpenters,  and  the  bark  by  tanners,  also  occasionally 
employed  as  medicine.  ^ . 

ACERACE.E. — MAPLES. — The  Sycamore  (Acer  pseu- 
do-platanus)  is  a  handsome  tree  ;  the  leaves  are  heart- 
shaped  and  five-lobed ;  grows  to  a  height  of  more  than 
forty  or  fifty  feet ;  flowers  greenish-yellow,  hang  in  clus- 
ters, and  belong  to  the  23rd  class  of  Linnaeus,  as  they 
possess  both  pistil  and  stamen.  The  bark  is  smooth  and 
exfoliates  in  thin  plates.  The  wood  is  white,  and  not 
much  esteemed ;  is  occasionally  sawed  into  joists  and 
other  lumber.  i> 

Sugar  or  Rock  Maple  (Acer  saccharinum),  found 
throughout  the  United  States,  is  a  tree  of  lofty  propor- 
tions, often  seventy  feet  in  height,  with  a  trunk  three 
11 


242  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  palmately  five-lobed  and  den- 
tated ;  flowers  pendulous.  Maple  sugar,  perhaps  the 
most  delicious  of  all  sweets,  is  the  product  of  this  spe- 
cies ;  an  ordinary  tree  will  yield  from  five  to  ten  pounds 
in  a  season.  The  wood  is  strong  and  compact,  and  makes 
the  best  of  fuel.  It  is  sometimes  grained  or  curled  like 
the  red  maple,  but  oftener  presents  that  beautiful  ar- 
rangement of  fibre  called  Bird's  Eye  Maple,  so  much 
esteemed  in  cabinet  work.  The  flowers  are  delicate  and 
beautiful.  ^. 

The  Box  Elder,  Ash-Leaved  Maple  (Acer  negundo 
vel  campestre),  Linn.,  has  heart-shaped,  obtuse  leaves, 
three  or  five-lobed  and  dentated  ;  flowers  stand  in  upright 
clusters ;  is  a  small  tree  or  rather  large  shrub,  with  a 
rough  bark.  The  hard  wood  is  used  by  turners  for  vari- 
ous articles,  and  the  roots  furnish  the  well  known  Ulmer 
pipe-heads,  so  much  prized  in  Germany.  T? . 

TWENTIETH  FAMILY. — VITACE^A. — Juss.  Shrubby 
plants,  stems  climbing  by  tendrils. 

The  Wine  Grape  (Vitis  vinifera).  (Class  5,  L.) 
Flowers  small  and  green  ;  calyx  minute  and  entire ; 
five-toothed  or  petals  four  or  five,  inserted  on  the  outside 
of  the  disk ;  hang  in  the  form  of  grapes ;  fruit  a  pulpy 
berry  containing  from  one  to  four  hard  seeds.  The  leaves 
are  heart-shaped,  ragged,  and  digitate.  The  grapevine 
was  originally  brought  from  the  warmer  regions  of  Asia, 
and  thrives  well  in  the  south  temperate  zone ;  does  not 
flourish  so  well  in  the  north.  In  countries  situated  within 
fifty  degrees  north  lat.,  vines  are  planted  only  on  the 
sunny  slopes  of  hills ;  but  in  the  southern  part  of  Europe, 
as  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  Canary  Islands,  where,  even 
along  the  roadsides,  beautiful  trees  are  planted  so  as  to 
form  regular  avenues,  vine  cuttings  are  placed  between 


PLANTS.  243 

and  suffered  to  climb  in  rank  luxuriance  upon  the 
branches,  and  arching  overhead,  make  a  delightful  ar- 
bor, completely  screening  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
The  grape  is  distinguished  from  the  other  vitacesea  by 
its  hard  wood  and  many-fissured  rind.  There  are  said 
to  be  fourteen  thousand  varieties  belonging  to  the  race. 
That  wine  is  made  from  grapes  is  generally  known,  but 
the  processes  are  as  varied  as  the  fruit.  The  following 
description  refers  to  the  present  mode  :  The  ripest  grapes 
are  separated  from  their  clusters  and  shaken  on  a  wire 
sieve,  so  arranged  that  they  are  freed  from  stems,  which, 
if  suffered  to  remain,  would  spoil  the  flavor  of  the  wine. 
They  are  next  placed  in  a  vat,  the  bottom  of  which  is 
bored  full  of  holes  ;  beneath  this  is  another  large  vessel, 
where  the  juice  of  the  fruit,  crushed  by  machinery  or 
otherwise  in  the  upper  vat  is  received.  The  skins  mostly 
fall  with  the  juice  into  the  lower  tub — if  not  in  sufficient 
quantity,  they  are  afterwards  added.  The  whole  mass 
is  commonly  left  to  ferment — a  certain  time  being  allowed 
for  the  purpose — as  well  as  to  give  a  deeper  hue  to  the 
wine,  for  as  the  coloring  matter  is  contained  in  the  skins, 
it  could  not  be  sufficiently  drawn  out  if  the  must  was 
pressed  as  soon  as  crushed.  Therefore,  those  who  desire 
to  make  highly-colored  wine  are  in  the  habit  of  fre- 
quently stirring  down  the  skins,  which  rise  to  the  top 
during  fermentation.  This  mode  of  proceeding  can  only 
be  used  to  advantage  when  the  fermenting  tubs  are 
closely  covered ;  for  the  skins  coming  in  contact  with 
the  atmospheric  air  would  become  sour.  After  standing 
a  sufficient  time,  a  part  of  the  fluid  is  drawn  off  from 
below;  this,  which  is  the  pure  juice,  is  clear,  strong, 
and  requires  no  pressing.  The  other  portion,  thicker, 
and  mixed  with  seeds  and  hulls,  is  put  into  the  press, 


244  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

from  which  it  comes  forth  clear,  but  as  the  juice  first 
drawn  is  considered  stronger,  the  -whole  is  generally 
mixed  together. 

In  order  to  have  good  -wine,  the  first  rule  to  he  ob- 
served is  in  the  gathering.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in 
selecting  the  grapes,  allowing  none  that  are  unripe  or 
decayed  to  remain  among  them ;  the  second  rule  is,  not 
to  mix  different  species  of  the  grapes  together ;  and  the 
third,  and  altogether  necessary  to  be  remembered,  is  to 
maintain  the  most  perfect  cleanliness.  The  wine  being 
pressed,  and  having  come  forth  clean  from  the  strainer,  is 
placed  in  barrels  to  undergo  a  second  fermentation. 
This  new  and  yet  sweet  wine,  called  Must,  contains 
sugar,  mucilage,  tartaric  acid,  water,  and  an  oily  sub- 
stance of  a  peculiar  and  pleasant  odor,  and  coloring  mat- 
ter. The  sweeter  the  new  wine  is,  the  more  spirit  will 
it  possess  after  fermentation ;  after  which  the  oily  prin- 
ciple loses  its  delightful  odor,  the  coloring  matter  its  hue, 
and  the  sugar  is  changed  into  alcohol.  The  mucilaginous 
portion  and  tartaric  acid  mingle  together,  and  after  a 
greater  or  less  effervescence,  form  carbonic  acid.  The 
gas  arising  from  this  latter  element  diffuses  itself 
throughout  the  wine  vault,  and  makes  it  dangerous  for 
any  one  to  enter,  as  it  produces  suffocation.  It  is  cus- 
tomary to  place  pans  of  burning  charcoal  on  the  cellar 
floor  in  order  to  absorb  this  poisonous  gas.  During  the 
fermenting  process  the  wine  becomes  heated  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  degrees. 

The  husks  or  skins  that  remain  after  being  pressed, 
are  used  partly  by  tanners  or  given  as*  food  to  swine ; 
and,  last  of  all,  good  oil  is  made  from  the  seeds.  The 
fermentation  having  ceased,  which  is  not  before  spring, 
the  wine  is  drawn  from  the  lees  and  put  into  new  barrels. 


PLANTS.  245 

Brandy  and  alcohol  are  made  from  the  lees,  and  the  tar- 
trate  of  potash  found  on  the  sides  of  the  fermenting  ves- 
sels is  used  for  medical  purposes.  If  the  wine  is  left 
exposed  to  the  air,  it  undergoes  a  new  fermentation,  and 
becomes  vinegar.  As  the  saccharine  matter  has  much 
to  do  in  determining  the  strength  of  the  wine,  it  is  very 
common  to  dry  the  grapes  partially  before  pressing  in 
order  to  free  them  of  the  watery  properties ;  this  is  done 
by  spreading  them  out  in  the  sun  or  in  ovens  slightly 
warm.  This  prevents  the  sugar  from  changing  the  wine 
into  alcohol,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  sack  and  other 
sweet  wines,  is  generally  observed.  In  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Spain,  grapes  are  dried  and  sent  abroad  as  raisins ; 
many  are  entirely  without  seeds.  The  wood  of  the  stem 
and  small  branches,  burnt  into  charcoal,  is  much  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  printer's  ink  and  black  crayons. 
Zante  Currants  or  Corinthian  Raisins  are  made  from 
a  remarkably  small  grape  called  the  Black  Corinth. 
There  are  incredible  varieties  of  grapes,  in  France  alone 
are  fourteen  hundred ;  the  different  kinds  are  used  for 
making  different  wines.  Rhenish  wine  is  made  from  the 
Risling  •  Champagne  from  the  Clevner  /  the  Burgundy, 
Traminer,  and  Muscadine  are  much  esteemed  as  the  best 
European  wines.  The  American  species  are  Vitis  La- 
brusca,  Isabella,  Catawba,  Kaccoon,  etc.  The  Labrusca 
or  Fox  Grape  is  a  native  of  the  Northern  States,  has 
been  cultivated  in  Europe ;  the  fruit  has  the  flavor  of 
the  Muscatel,  h. 

The  American  Ivy  or  Woodbine  (ampelopsis  heder- 
acea),  Michx.,  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  five-fingered 
dentate  leaves,  and,  as  autumn  approaches,  its  beautiful 
red  foliage.  It  has  long  been  cultivated  as  a  covering 
for  walls  and  arbors;  its  radiating  tendrils  fastening 


246  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

everywhere,  it  climbs  to  the  height  of  fifty  feet.  It 
bears  a  dark  blue  berry,  which  is  not  eatable. 

TWEXTY-FIRST  FAMILY. — GERAXIACE^E. — (Class  10, 
L.)  Are  hardy  plants,  with  many-lobed  leaves,  flowers 
opposite.  Pelargoniums,  or  common  geraniums,  not  so 
hardy  as  to  bear  the  winters  in  a  northern  climate,  be- 
long to  this  class,  and,  largely  cultivated  as  garden  and 
house  plants,  are  well  known  from  their  beautiful  flowers 
and  sweet  odor. 

The  Red  Stork's  Bill  (Geranium  sanguineum),  L., 
Her.,  has  an  upright  stem,  diffusely  branched,  reddish 
leaves,  and  dark,  blood-red  flowers;  a  foot  and  a  half 
high,  grows  in  woods  and  dry,  grassy  places,  but  finds  a 
place  in  gardens  on  account  of  its  beauty  and  sweet  per- 
fume. ]7. 

The  Crane's  Bill  (Pelargonium)  belong  to  this  fam- 
ily. Are  distinguished  by  the  irregular,  two-lobed 
petals,  and  stamens  partially  sterile.  Natives  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  they  are  found  in  endless 
variety.  Many  have  been  transplanted  to  the  gardens 
and  hot-houses  of  the  north,  and  not  less  prized  as  being 
highly  ornamental  than  for  the  delightful  odor  of  the 
leaves. 

TWEXTY-SECOXD  FAMILY. — TROPACOLACEJS. — TRO- 
PIIYWORTS. — (Class  8,  L.)  Are  straggling  or  twining, 
with  orbicular  leaves  and  large,  showy  flowers. 

The  first  of  this  genus  is 

The  Nasturtium — Indian  Cress  (Tropseoleum  ma- 
jus),  which  has  the  calyx  five-parted  and  spurred  at  the 
base ;  flowers  composed  of  five  unequal  petals,  three  of 
which  are  clawed,  the  two  upper  inserted  on  the  calyx  ; 
of  a  bright  orange  color,  brown  spotted.  The  fruit  a 
seeded  nut,  divided  into  three  globes.  Both  flowers, 


PLANTS.  247 

stems,  and  fruit  have  a  pleasant,  aromatic,  and  pungent 
flavor,  and,  eaten  as  salad,  and  the  unripe  fruit  prepared 
as  a  condiment,  is  a  tolerable  substitute  for  capers.  This 
beautiful  race,  sometimes  called  Trophyworts,  came 
originally  from  Peru,  but  are  now  cultivated  largely  in 
the  United  States.  There  are  forty  varieties.  O.  Re- 
ceives its  name  tropaium,  a  trophy,  from  the  resemblance 
of  the  leaf  to  a  shield,  the  flower  to  an  empty  helmet. 

TWENTY-THIRD  FAMILY.  —  OXALIDACE^;.  —  WOOD 
SORREL. — (Class  10,  L.)  Are  low  or  herbaceous  plants, 
growing  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Common  Sorrel  (oxalis  acetosella).  Calyx  and 
flower  composed  of  five  petals ;  seed  contained  in  a  cap- 
sule, which  bursts,  scattering  the  contents  elastically. 
Leaves  are  heart-shaped,  five-lobed ;  the  flower  is  white, 
and  without  odor.  The  whole  plant  has  an  agreeable 
acid  taste,  and  the  juice  extracted  and  mechanically  pre- 
pared, forms  oxalic  acid  or  salt  of  sorrel,  which,  in 
large  doses,  is  highly  poisonous.  Found  in  woodlands 
and  fence  rows.  Blooms  from  May  to  July.  K . 

The  Sensitive  Plant  (oxalis  sensitiva)  has  small 
feathered  leaves,  with  leaflets  from  6-16  pairs;  lower 
sides  shining  purple.  The  leaves  retract  or  shrink  at 
the  slightest  touch  or  breath,  folding  themselves  so  closely 
that  the  purple  color  can  not  be  seen.  The  flowers 
are  small  and  yellow ;  the  seeds  are  contained  in  cap- 
sules, which,  when  fully  ripe,  burst  open  and  scatter  the 
seeds  often  to  a  distance  of  five  or  six  feet.  This  species 
is  native  of  the  East  Indies,  where  the  people  regard  it 
with  superstitious  reverence,  and  attribute  wonderful 
properties  to  it.  2£ .  Found  also  in  America. 


248  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


SECOND  SUB-CLASS. 

Flowers  with  one  or  many  petals  adhering  to  or  in- 
serted on  the  calyx. 

TWENTY-FOURTH  FAMILY.  —  RHAMXACE.E.  —  (Class 
o,  L.)  Are  shrubs  and  trees  well  provided  with  thorns. 
Natives  of  temperate  countries;  flowers  small;  calyx 
tubular  and  campanulate.  The  first  is 

The  Buckthorn  (rhamnus  cathartica).  About  six 
feet  high ;  leaves  growing  in  tufts,  oval,  and  doubly  ser- 
rated, flowers  small  and  of  a  greenish-white,  blooms  in 
May.  The  pea-like  berries  are  black,  of  a  bitter  taste, 
and  act  both  as  a  cathartic  and  emetic.  Bark  and  un- 
ripe fruit  contain  a  yellow  dye  ;  sap  green  is  made  from 
the  ripe  berries,  and,  also,  when  over-ripe,  a  beautiful 
purple,  both  much  used  by  water  color  painters.  ]?. 

The  Alder- Leaved  Buckthorn  (Rhamnus  frangula), 
Michx.  Rather  low,  leaves  oval,  entirely  serrate; 
flowers  mostly  with  five  stamens,  and  bi-sexed.  Fruit- 
berries  at  first  red,  afterwards  black.  Very  common  in 
the  woods  of  Europe ;  the  reddish-colored  wood  is  much 
prized  by  cabinet-makers  and  turners ;  besides,  burned 
into  charcoal,  it  is  preferred  before  any  other  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  therefore  it  is  often  called 
powder-wood,  h. 

The  Jujube  (zizyphus  vulgaris)  is  a  shrub  found  in 
Italy  and  Spain,  with  few  thorns ;  short,  oval  leaves, 
much  toothed;  fruit  droops  about  an  inch  long,  light 
red,  containing  a  gelatinous  pulp  in  which  a  single  seed 
is  enveloped.  The  dried  fruit  is  much  esteemed  as  a 
specific  in  all  pulmonary  affections. 

The  Thorn  of  the  Cross  and  Zizyphus  Latus  belong 


PLANTS.  249 

exclusively  to  southern  climates ;  the  first  is  believed  to 
be  the  same  genus  as  that  from  -which  the  cross  on  which 
the  Saviour  suffered  was  made ;  the  latter,  which  grows 
only  in  northern  Africa,  is  known  through  the  Odys- 
sy.  h. 

Next  in  order  is 

The  Holly  (Ilex  aquifolium).  A  large  bush,  with 
smooth,  green  bark  on  the  branches ;  leaves  evergreen, 
oval,  leathery,  and  spinous;  flowers  white,  hanging  in 
pedicels,  and  very  red  berries.  The  wood  is  fine  grained, 
compact,  useful  in  turnery,  etc.  Ilex  is  the  ancient 
name  of  the  Holm  Oak,  Hollyicorts  or  Aquifoliacece 
of  the  race  in  general.  Genera  11,  species  110.  Na- 
tives of  America  and  Africa.  Only  one,  the  Holm  oak 
or  Ilex  being  found  in  Europe.  ]2. 

The  Spindle  Tree — Burning  Bush  (euonymus  eu- 
ropseus)  is  a  handsome  shrub  from  four  to  twelve  feet 
high,  with  ragged,  angular  branches;  leaves  elliptical, 
pointed,  and  notched.  Flowers  greenish-white,  hanging 
forkedly  in  clusters.  The  fruit  is  four-cornered  rather 
than  globular ;  capsules  crimson  and  smooth ;  seeds 
white,  inclosing  a  green  kernel.  Grows  in  gardens,  or 
wild  in  the  Southern  States ;  the  wood  is  valuable  to 
turners,  and  the  small  branches  make  good  charcoal 
crayons,  h. 

TWENTY-FIFTH  FAMILY.  —  TEREBINTHE.E. — (Class 
2,  L.)  This  family  belongs  to  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  is  well  known  and  valuable  as  furnishing  use- 
ful gums  and  fruits  resembling  almonds. 

The  Pistachio    Tree    (Pistacia  vera),    of  moderate 

size,  was   brought   originally  from  Persia,  but  is  now 

common  in  Italy ;  the  male  flowers  are  in  catkins ;  the 

female  hung  in  simple  clusters.     It  bears  nut-like  fruit, 

11* 


250  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

inclosed  in  a  pericarp,  about  the  size  of  a  hazel-nut ;  the 
kernels,  used  as  almonds,  are  pale  green  and  oily ;  the 
envelops  is  reddish-colored,  h. 

The  next  relative  is 

The  Mastic  Tree  (Pistacio  lentiscus),  and  furnishes 
the  resinous  substance  called  frankincense  and  gum  mas- 
tic, which  exude  in  drops  from  its  trunk.  Closely  related 
to  it  also  is 

The  Turpentine  Tree,  grows  in  the  Island  of  Cyprus 
and  Italy,  and  is  valuable  for  the  excellence  of  its  gum, 
which  is  known  as  Venice  Turpentine,  h. 

The  Smoke  Plant  or  Venitian  Sumach  (Rhus  cot- 
inus),  Nuttall,  is  chiefly  a  native  of  tropical  regions, 
represented  in  the  United  States  by  the  genus  Rhus 
only.  It  is  a  shrub  with  leaves  rather  oblong  than  oval, 
veined  like  network  (reticulated)  and  furnished  with 
footstalks ;  the  flowers  small  and  of  a  greenish -yellow, 
hang  in  panicles.*  After  blooming,  the  unfruitful  foot- 
stalks become  long,  diffuse,  and  feathery,  showing  in  the 
distance  as  if  the  plant  were  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of 
smoke.  Sometimes  it  grows  wild,  but  is  often  planted 
in  gardens,  its  singular  appearance  rendering  it  quite 
ornamental.  In  Italy  the  plant  is  used  for  tanning,  h. 

TWENTY-SIXTH  FAMILY. — PAPILIONACE^E. — (PULSE 
FAMILY)!  are  mostly  plants  or  shrubs — seldom  trees — 
which  furnish  a  vegetable  diet  for  man  or  food  for  ani- 
mals. The  flowers  are  of  rather  singular  structure, 

*  Found  wild  in  Arkansas,  where  it  grows  to  a  height  of  six  feet. 
There  are  ninety-five  species  of  the  anacardiaceae.  The  Cashew  Nut 
is  the  product  of  a  small  tree  of  both  ladies,  and  belongs  to  the  Anacar- 
diaceae.— Tr. 

•J"  Belonging  to  the  Order  Leguminosse,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
extensive  and  important.  It  yields  to  medicine  and  the  arts  its  full  pro- 
portion of  the  substances  derived  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 


PLANTS.  251 

having  two  lateral  petals  called  wings  and  two  lower  ones 
which,  converging  together,  form  a  body  named  the  Car- 
ina,  or  Keel,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  boat,  and  serves 
to  enclose  the  stamens  and  pistil.  If  our  young  student 
will  examine  the  nearest  bean  blossom,  he  will  find  a 
better  explanation  than  can  be  conveyed  by  terms ;  there 
are  nine  coherent  (diadelphous)  stamens,  and  one  free ; 
therefore  the  Papilionacese  rank  in  the  17th  class,  L. 
The  fruit,  or  rather  seed,  is  contained  in  pods,  and  is 
mostly  eatable.  To  this  division  belongs,  first, 

The  Tragacanth  Tree  (Astragalus  tragacantha).  It 
is  shrub-like,  with  numerous  leaflets — ten  pairs — small 
and  oblong ;  the  flowers  are  pale-red.  A  native  of  the 
East,  it  furnishes  a  gum  which  exudes  from  its  bark, 
•which  is  very  useful  in  Materia  Medica  and  the  arts. 
The  gums  Arabic,  Cino,  Senna,  Catechu,  also  belong  to 
this  tribe.  Related  to  this  family  is 

The  A.  Bactricus,  valued  and  cultivated  on  account 
of  the  .seeds,  which  are  said  to  afford  a  tolerable  substi- 
tute for  coffee.  It  is  also  known  by  the  name  of  Swedish 
coffee ;  but  it  is  hardly  likely  that  this  plant  will  ever 
be  of  much  account  in  this  country,  as  coffee-drinkers 
are  not  apt  to  admire  substitutes  for  their  favorite  ber- 
ry. T?. 

The  Indifjo  Plant  (Indigofera  tinctoria),  plate  27, 
fig.  5,  is  a  low  tree  or  rather  a  tall  shrub,  two  to  three 
feet  in  height,  with  six  or  eight  pairs  of  cleft  leaflets ; 
their  shape  is  oblong,  rather  than  oval,  and  the  red  flow- 
ers are  arranged  in  short  clusters.  The  indigo  plant  is 
a  native  of  the  East  Indies  and  China,  but  has  been 
transplanted  to  the  West  Indies,  where  it  is  now  culti- 
vated in  many  places.  The  seed  is  sown  in  a  rich,  light 
soil,  requires  much  culture,  and  must  be  carefully  nursed 


252  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

and  weeded  In  two  months  from  the  time  of  planting, 
and  before  the  flowers  appear,  the  leaves  are  cut  off  and 
dried  in  the  sun  ;  after  this,  they  are  laid  for  a  few  days 
in  a  kind  of  stone  vat,  from  five  to  six  feet  deep,  which 
is  then  filled  up  with  clean  water  in  order  to  extract  the 
coloring  matter,  a  process  during  which  fermentation  is 
produced.  The  preparation  of  Indigo  is  considered  a 
most  unhealthy  occupation,  therefore  many  of  the  pro- 
vinces, for  instance  Surinam,  where  it  used  to  be  carried 
on  to  some  extent,  have  given  it  up,  and  the  planters 
have  turned  their  attention  to  other,  more  agreeable  and 
healthful,  if  not  more  profitable  employments.  The 
coloring  matter  which  is  about  as  thick  as  mud.  settles 
on  the  bottom  of  the  vat,  whence  it  is  removed,  put  into 
linen  sacks,  dried,  and  exported  as  an  article  of  com- 
merce, b.  L. 

Clover  (Trifolium),  Tourn.  The  clover  family  consists 
of  small,  juicy  plants,  which  grow  everywhere,  in  mea- 
dows, fields,  or  woods ;  flowers  situated  on  small  pedicels, 
are  head-shaped  ;  considered  as  excellent  food  for  cattle. 
The  best  known  of  the  clover  genera  are,  first, 

The  Meadow  or  Red  Clover  (Trifolium  pra tense),  is 
well  known,  being  largely  cultivated  everywhere ;  its  red 
flowers  not  only  adorn  the  meadows,  and  with  the  leaves 
furnish  excellent  fresh  pasture  for  cattle,  but,  filled  with 
honey,  attract  the  bees,  which  may  be  seen  hovering  over 
them  all  day  long.  The  odor  of  ripe  clover  is  delight- 
"ful,  nor  is  its  usefulness  ended  with  the  summer,  for  cut 
down  by  the  scythe  of  the  mower,  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
made  into  hay,  it  is  most  valuable  in  the  winter  for  feed- 
ing cattle.  $ . 

Creeping  White  Clover  (Trifolium  repens).  Stems 
rather  creeping  and  diffuse ;  lying  on  the  ground,  and 


PLANTS.  253 

branching  from  roots  ;  inversely  ovate ;  flowers  white, 
or  globose  heads  on  erect  naked  stalks.  Found  by  road- 
sides and  in  meadows,  where  it  is  cultivated,  being  con- 
sidered excellent  fodder  for  cattle.  2£. 

Bb'd's  Foot  Trefoil  (Lotus  corniculatus) ,  has  an  up- 
right stem  ;  is  three-leafed  ;  leaflets  strongly  developed ; 
flowers  yellow,  appearing  on  heads  oval  or  conical ; 
known  also  as  Yellow  or  Hop  Clover.  Native  of  Eu- 
rope. Hab.  of  sandy  ground  or  road  sides.  11. 

Stone  Clover  (Mellilothus  officinalis),  Tourn.,  Endl.  ; 
has  a  branching  stem  ;  leaves  serrated  or  notched  ;  the 
flowers  are  yellow,  hang  in  beautiful  racemes,  and  not 
unlike  the  blossom  of  hops  ;  therefore  it  has  received  the 
name  of  hop  clover.  Not  particularly  valuable  as  fodder 
but  sometimes  used  in  medicine.  2£ . 

The  White-Jlowered  Mellilot  (Mellilotus  coeroleus). 
This  plant,  M.  Corulea  of  Lam.,  now  the  Frigonclla 
ccerulea  of  D.  Cand.,  of  strong  and  enduring  odor,  is 
employed  in  Switzerland  to  give  the  peculiar  flavor  to 
the  famous  Schabzieger,  or,  as  it  is  usually  called  in  the 
vernacular,  Sap-sago  cheese.  It  has  a  stout  erect  stem, 
from  two  to  three  feet  high ;  flowers  pale-blue ;  leaves 
three-lobed  ;  comes  originally  from  Africa.  Introduced 
into  the  United  States  from  Europe ;  only  partially  cul- 
tivated, n . 

Lucerne  (Medicago  Sativa),  Tourn.,  Endl.,  Snail 
Clover  or  Blue  Everlasting  Clover,  for  in  Europe  it  is 
known  by  all  those  names.  Stem  erect  and  smooth ; 
leaves  oblong  and  untoothed  ;  flowers  blue  and  standing 
in  clusters.  It  is  in  considerable  demand  in  Europe,  as 
it  makes  excellent  fodder,  and  yields  a  profitable  crop 
for  ten  years.  It . 

The  Sain-fain  Esparsette  (Heclysarum  onobrychis), 


254  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

L. ,  or  Red  Everlasting  Clover,  has  a  stem  from  one  to 
two  feet  high,  branched,  smoothish.  Leaflets  feathered, 
flowers  beautiful  red  color,  grow  in  clusters,  cone-shaped, 
and,  like  the  foregoing,  yields  a  profitable  crop  ;  thrives 
well  even  on  poor  lands,  and  does  not  require  frequent 
renewing,  but  lasts  for  many  years.  Is  much  cultivated 
in  Europe.  All  of  the  clover  genera,  when  dried  into 
hay,  are  highly  valuable  as  furnishing  excellent  fodder  ; 
there  is,  however,  one  great  drawback  in  suffering  cattle 
to  graze  among  fresh  clover,  as,  when  eaten  to  excess,  it 
swells  in  the  stomach,  and  kills  the  animal.  If. 

Tremulous  Shield  Clover — Sensitive  Joint  Vetch 
(Hedysarum  gyrans),  grows  in  the  East  Indies ;  the 
stalk,  three  to  four  inches  high,  is  smooth,  and  about  as 
thick  as  one's  little  finger ;  large  end  leaves  two  to  four 
inches  long  ;  side  leaves  smaller,  half  an  inch  long ; 
flowers,  violet,  verging  into  reddish-purple;  stand  in 
panicles;  the  seed  is  kidney-shaped  and  black.  This 
plant  has  the  singular  property  of  always  being  in 
motion.  Its  movements,  however,  are  not  excited  by 
the  contact  of  external  bodies,  but  solely  by  the  influence 
of  the  sun's  rays.  When  the  sun  shines  the  leaves  move 
briskly  in  every  direction ;  their  general  motion  is,  how- 
ever, upward  and  downward,  but  they  not  unfrequently 
turn  almost  round,  and  then  their  footstalks  are  evidently 
twisted.  These  motions  go  on  incessantly  as  long  as  the 
heat  of  the  sun  continues ;  but  they  cease  during  the 
night  or  when  the  weather  is  cloudy  or  cold.  It  does 
not  live  long.  When  brought  to  Europe,  as  it  is  occa- 
sionally, it  must  be  nursed  carefully  in  a  conserva- 
tory. O- 

Broom  Grass  (Spartium  scoparium)  grows  into  a 
bush  from  five  to  six  feet  high ;  branches  green  and 


PLANTS.  255 

angular :  leaves  simple  and  ternate  ;  flowers  large  and 
yellow.  Found  in  woods,  hedges,  or  on  hill-sides  ;  used 
for  making  brooms  and  baskets.  Hares  eat  it  greed- 
ily. 12. 

Liquorice.  Swectwood  (Glycyrrhiza  glabra),  the  pro- 
duct of  a  bush  which  grows  wild  in  Spain,  France,  and 
Italy,  is  sometimes  cultivated  as  far  north  as  Germany. 
The  root,  which  is  the  part  used,  is  about  two  inches  in 
circumference,  woody,  sometimes  four  feet  long ;  brown- 
ish-yellow on  the  outside,  bright  yellow  within  ;  tough, 
and  has  a  sweetish  taste  ;  the  leaves  unequally  pinnate 
and  somewhat  gummy ;  flowers  pale  blue,  clustering, 
hanging  in  racemes  ;  fruit,  a  pod  containing  many  small 
seeds.  The  liquorice  plant  is  more  generally  cultivated 
in  the  south  than  in  the  north ;  requires  but  little  care. 
The  juice  of  the  root  boiled  down  to  a  certain  consist- 
ence, furnishes  the  article  sold  as  liquorice,  and  well 
known  to  children.  The  manner  of  preparing  it,  is  to 
cut  the  root  in  small  pieces,  crush  or  grind  them  in  a 
mill,  like  the  sugar  cane,  and  then  boil  the  juice  until  of 
the  requisite  thickness.  Afterwards  it  is  next  molded 
into  shapes,  enveloped  in  the  leaves  of  the  bay  berry, 
wax  myrtle  (Myrica  cerifera),  and  sent  abroad  as  an 
article  of  commerce.  Some  care  is  requisite  to  keep  it 
from  burning,  and  it  has  been  known  to  injure,  when 
mixed  with  the  particles  of  copper  supposed  to  be  scraped 
from  the  boiler,  h. 

The  Broom  (Genista  tinctoria).  Calyx  two-lipped ; 
branches  upright,  round,  and  striated  ;  leaves  woolly  and 
lance-shaped ;  fruit-pods  smooth  and  straight.  Grows 
on  hills  or  mountain-sides  ;  height  of  stalk  about  two 
feet.  Blooms  from  July  to  August ;  contains  a  yellow 
juice,  from  which  is  prepared  the  pigment  known  as 


256  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Dutch  Pink,  and  used  also  in  painting  as  yellow,  and, 
mixed  with  Prussian  blue,  green.  Tastes  very  bitter.  2£. 

The  Locust  (Kobinia  pseudacacia),  also  called  the 
Acacia,  is  a  large  tree,  often  measuring  forty  feet  in 
height,  and  of  varied  circumference,  sometimes  two  or 
three  feet  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  yellowish,  hard, 
and  brittle ;  therefore  it  is  seldom  planted  in  places  ex- 
posed to  gusts  of  wind,  as  the  branches  are  easily  broken. 
The  small  branches  are  rod-like  and  furnished  with 
thorns.  Leaves  oval,  flowers  very  fragrant,  white,  and 
hang  in  clustering  tassels.  This  beautiful  tree  deserves 
more  favor  than  it  receives,  as  it  is  not  only  ornamental 
but  valuable  ;  its  hard  wood,  enduring  for  years,  is  par- 
ticularly useful  for  making  posts,  railroad  ties  or  sleep- 
ers, and  its  sweet-smelling  flowers,  containing  much 
honey,  are  great  favorites  with  the  bees.  There  are 
several  species,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  the 
Honey  Locust  or  Threethorned  Acacia  (Gleditschia 
trircanthos),  the  Clammy  Locust,  with  branchlets  and 
leaf-stalks  clammy  ;  flowers  crowded  in  oblong  clusters, 
tinged  with  rose-color,  nearly  inodorous ;  and  the  Crown 
Locust,  the  branches  of  which  are  so  arranged  that  the 
top  of  the  tree  resembles  a  crown.  ]i. 

Lentils  (Ervum  lens),  Tourne.,  are  everywhere  culti- 
vated in  kitchen  gardens  ;  about  one  and  a  half  feet 
high ;  stalks  weak  ;  leaves  oval  and  numerous  ;  hang  on 
climbing  stems  ;  flowers  pale  blue ;  pods  short  and  two- 
seeded.  The  whole  plant  is  esteemed  good  food  for 
cattle;  the  seeds  are  used  as  a  vegetable.  O« 

Vetch  or  Tare  (Vicia  sativa),  Tourn.,  Endl.,  has  a 
short  flower  stalk,  with  oval,  oblong  leaves;  bears  two 
upright  pods  with  round  seeds ;  grows  among  grain  as  a 
troublesome  weed,  although  it  is  sometimes  cultivated  as 


PLANTS.  257 

food  for  cattle.  There  are  several  varieties  found  in  the 
United  States  :  Hairy  Vetch  (Vicia  Hirsuta)  ;  Tufted 
Vetch  (Vicia  Cracca),  and  Wild  Vetch  (Vicia  Ameri- 
cana), regarded  as  weeds. 

The  Common  Field  or  Windsor  Bean  (Vicia  faba), 
Moench.  Stalk  rigid  erect,  with  oval  leaves ;  flowers 
white,  spotted  with  black ;  bears  three  legumes  or  pods, 
which,  on  being  ripe,  turn  black,  and  contain  very  large 
seed,  with  the  large  hilum  or  scar  at  one  end.  Used 
principally  as  food  for  cattle  ;  the  unripe  seeds  are,  how- 
ever, often  applied  to  table  use.  O- 

The  Common  Garden  Pea  (Pisum  vulgare)  is  culti- 
vated everywhere  ;  roundish  leaf-stalks  ;  leaves  oval, 
ternate  ;  tendrils  long  and  branching  ;  flowers  white  and 
numerous ;  pods  or  legumes  about  two  inches  long,  and 
sometimes,  when  unripe,  are  eaten.  The  seeds,  however, 
are  highly  esteemed  as  a  delicious  vegetable.  Some  of 
the  family  are  dwarfs,  others  climbers,  and  require  rods 
for  support.  The  plant  is,  however,  too  well  known  to 
require  any  farther  description.  ©.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  flowering  peas — Painted  Lady,  Sweet  Pea, 
Everlasting  Pea,  etc. 

The  Common  Bean  (Phaseolus  vulgaris)  grows  higher 
than  the  pea,  requiring  a  pole  for  support,  although  some 
species  are  low  and  dwarfish  ;  these  are  called  Bunch 
Beans,  supposed  to  be  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  but  cul- 
tivated in  Europe  from  the  earliest  times.  The  stem,  five 
to  eight  feet  long,  twining  against  the  sun ;  leaves  pointed 
and  heart-shaped ;  flowers  white,  blooming  in  clusters  ; 
pods  flat,  and  while  young,  constitute  the  favorite  dish 
called  string  beans.  The  seeds  contained  in  the  mature 
fruit  are  also  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food.  There 
are  many  varieties,  Bush  or  Kidney  Bean  (Phascolua 


258  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Nanus),  Lima  Bean  (Phascolus  Lunatus),  etc.  The 
handsomest  of  the  species  is 

The  Fire  Bean,  Turkish  Bean,  which,  found  in  the 
•warmer  portions  of  America,  blooms  throughout  the 
•whole  summer,  even  until  late  in  autumn.  It  is  consid- 
ered very  ornamental,  and  cultivated  on  account  of  the 
rare  beauty  of  its  deep-red  flowers ;  seeds  white  or  purple 
spotted,  and  very  large.  O . 

The  Tamarind  Tree  (Tamarindus  Indicus)  is  a  very 
high  tree,  which,  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  Arabia, 
and  Middle  Africa,  is  planted  in  front  of  houses,  as  the 
linden  is  in  Europe.  The  crown  is  very  broad  and 
leafy ;  the  leaves  oblong  or  oval.  The  flowers  are  white, 
and  hang  in  small  clusters.  To  thes3  flowers  follow  dark 
brown  pods  or  legumes,  about  four  inches  long ;  within 
these  shells,  which  are  very  brittle,  is  found  a  pulpy 
mass  of  an  acid  taste,  that  is  used  either  as  medicine  or 
a  refrigerant  in  fevers ;  in  the  East,  however,  it  is  boiled 
into  a  syrup  with  sugar,  and  used  as  a  delicious  pre- 
serve. 

St.  John's  Bread  Tree  (Ceratonia  siliqua)  is  a  bush 
found  very  frequently  in  Southern  Europe  and  the  East ; 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  grows  to  the  height  of  an  ash; 
leaves  evergreen  and  feathered ;  leaflets  smooth  and  oval ; 
flowers  red,  and  hanging  in  racemes  or  clusters.  The 
fruit  is  a  reddish-brown  fleshy  pod.  about  four  inches 
long,  which  contains  a  sweet,  mucilaginous  substance — a 
kind  of  vegetable  marrow ;  the  seeds  or  kernels  are  dark 
brown,  and  very  hard.  The  fruit  is  used  in  Germany 
either  fresh  or  dried ;  known  as  St.  John's  Bread.  In 
Spain  it  is  used  to  feed  horses,  and  in  Egypt  they  pre- 
pare a  kind  of  honey  from  the  juice.  '?. 

The  Gum  Acacia  (Acacia  gummifera).    Leaves  twice 


PLANTS.  259 

pinnate,  leaflets  numerous,  small,  oblong,  five  to  seven 
pairs ;  it  is  a  high  tree,  trunk  one  foot  in  diameter,  bark 
black,  branches  armed  with  numerous  thorns.  Flowers 
bloom  in  small  clusters ;  pods  six  inches  long,  and  filled 
with  brown  seeds.  The  sap,  which  abounds  in  this  tree, 
and  exudes  from  the  bark — as  the  gum  from  the  common 
cherry — furnishes  the  well  known  Gum  Arabic  of  the 
shops.  It  is  the  type  of  all  gums ;  many  species  of 
acacia,  as  well  as  the  plum  and  cherry  yield  it.  Used 
in  Europe  and  America  partly  for  medicinal,  and  partly 
for  various  other  purposes.  In  Arabia,  Egypt,  and 
Senegal,  where  the  tree  is  native,  the  inhabitants  use 
it  as  food.  h. 

The  Sensitive  Plant  (Mimosa  pudica)  has  a  stem 
clothed  with  prickles  and  bristles ;  leaves  twice  pinnate 
and  digitate ;  leaflets  small,  linear,  and  of  many  pairs ; 
seldom  reaches  above  two  or  four  feet  in  height;  stalk 
reddish  colored,  with  crooked  thorns.  If  the  leaves  are 
even  slightly  touched  they  suddenly  shrink,  and,  together 
with  the  branch,  bend  downward  to  the  earth.  A  native 
of  South  America,  but  cultivated  in  the  conservatories 
of  Europe,  if. 

TWENTY-SEVENTH  FAMILY. — ROSACEJE  or  ROSE  GE- 
NUS.— (Class  13,  L.)  Are  plants  with  regular  flowers, 
numerous  distinct  stamens  inserted  on  the  calyx,  and 
1. —  with  many  pistils,  which  are  quite  distinct,  or  (in 
the  Pear  Tribe}  united  and  combined  with  the  calyx 
tube.  Seeds  few,  and  without  albumen.  Leaves  alter- 
nate, and  with  stipules  at  the  base  of  leaf. 

The  Almond  Tree  (Amygdalis  communis)  much  re- 
sembles a  peach  tree.  The  calyx  is  campanulate,  five  cleft, 
and  colored ;  with  five  petals.  The  flowers  solitary  or 
in  pairs,  mostly  alone,  and  of  a  beautiful  rose  color. 


260  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  almond  tree  bears  a  stone  fruit,  with  a  very  thin, 
dry,  uneatable  pulp :  the  whole  is  enveloped  in  a  green- 
ish colored  woolly  skin.  Within  this  green  pod  is  the 
fruit  or  kernel,  the  well  known,  rich,  and  well-flavored 
Almond.  Native  of  North  Africa,  Palestine,  and 
Greece.  One  species,  the  Bitter  Almond,  contains, 
besides  a  richer  oil,  useful  for  many  purposes,  the  more 
formidable  ingredient  known  as  Prussia  Acid;  there- 
fore the  bitter  almond  is  altogether  poisonous  to  small 
animals,  and  can  not  be  eaten,  except  in  small  quantity, 
by  human  beings,  without  fatal  consequences.  Some- 
times cultivated  as  far  north  as  the  milder  portions  of 
Germany,  mostly  as  grafted  on  another  tree  of  the  same 
family.  One  species  has  a  very  slight,  fragile  shell,  and 
called  the  Paper  Shell,  is  preferred  by  many.  y: . 

The  Single  Floicering  Almond  (Amygdalis  nana), 
Willd.,  about  three  feet  high,  and  branching;  leaves 
ovate  and  finely  toothed;  flowers  numerous.  Petals 
oblong,  obtuse,  and  rose-colored.  Blooms  in  May  or 
June.  2£. 

The  Dwarf  Double  Flowering  Almond  (Amygdalis 
pumila)  is  a  low  shrub,  highly  ornamental,  common  in 
cultivation.  Stems  two  two  three  feet  high,  branching. 
Leaves  lanceolate,  acute  at  each  end,  and  smooth.  Native 
of  China.  Flowers  very  numerous,  clothing  the  whole 
shrub  in  their  roseate  hue,  while  the  leaves  are  small. 
Blooms  in  May  or  June.  2£. 

The  Peach  Tree  (Amygdalus  persica).  Tourn.  Named 
from  Persia,  its  native  country.  Leaves,  lanceolate  and 
serrate;  flowers  solitary,  appearing  before  the  leaves; 
drupe  or  seed,  with  the  flesh  or  pulp  white  or  yellow : 
outer  covering  woolly.  The  kernel  is  very  bitter,  and 
contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  Prussic  acid.  Among 


PLANTS.  261 

all  the  stone  fruits  the  peach  occupies  the  first  place,  on 
account  of  its  delicious  flavor  and  healthful  influence 
of  its  juicy  pulp.  About  two  hundred  varieties  of 
this  much  esteemed  fruit  are  now  named  and  described 
in  the  catalogues  of  American  nurserymen.  Trees  rather 
short-lived.  The  double  flowering  peach  is  a  highly  or- 
namental variety,  fy- 

The  Nectarine  (Persica  laevis),  De  Cand.  This  small 
tree  is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  the  preceding, 
except  by  its  smooth  fruit,  which  presents  the  same  vari- 
ety of  clingstone  and  freestone.  It  is  more  rare  than 
the  peach,  and  generally  smaller,  h. 

The  Apricot  (Prunus  armeniaca)  is  a  middle-sized  tree, 
with  broad,  smooth,  ovate,  serrate  leaves;  stout,  spread- 
ing branches ;  flowers,  solitary,  or  in  pairs,  petals  pinkish- 
Avhite,  preceding  the  leaves.  The  yellow  fruit  is  clothed 
with  a  soft,  velvety  pubescence ;  one  side  slightly  reddish. 
Came  originally  from  Epiru's,  and  was  known  to  the  an- 
cients as  the  Mains  Epiroticus.  The  drupe  of  the  common 
apricot  contains  a  bitter  kernel,  although  there  are  some 
kinds  of  which  the  kernel  is  sweet,  like  that  of  the 
almond,  and  yields  a  rich  oil.  Cultivated  in  gardens  as 
rare  fruit.  T?. 

The  Common  Plum  Tree,  or  Damascene  (Prunus 
domestica),  originally  from  the  East,  was  brought  to 
Italy  in  Cato's  time.  Has  oval,  lanceolate  leaves ;  white, 
myrtle-like  flowers;  fruit  oblong,  pulpy,  and  juicy. 
There  are  many  varieties.  The  round  or  globe-shaped 
plum  is  considered  the  true  plum  ;  the  oblong,  the  Dam- 
ascene, or  Plum  of  Damascus.  Both  are  covered  with  a 
beautiful  purple  bloom,  which  is  easily  removed.  Gages, 
green  and  yellow.  The  Red  Plum  (Prunus  americana), 
and  Chickasaw  Plum  (Prunus  chicasa),  are  among  the 


262  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

varieties.  The  fruit  is  used  largely,  either  fresh,  dried, 
or  preserved  with  sugar.  In  Europe  a  kind  of  brandy 
is  distilled  from  the  juice,  and  the  wood  is  employed  in 
fine  cabinet  work.  h. 

The  Wild  Bullace  Tree  (Prunus  institia)  is  a  shrub, 
or  small  tree ;  branches  somewhat  spiny ;  leaves  ovate- 
lanceolate;  pubescent- villous  beneath;  fruit  black  and 
globular;  drupe  rounder  and  smaller  than  the  above 
mentioned  species.  Is  the  original  of  highly  cultivated 
species,  known  in  Germany  by  the  names  of  Renkloden, 
Mirabel,  and  Cybart.  Brought  from  Europe  to  the 
United  States ;  naturalized  on  the  banks  of  Charles 
River,  in  Cambridge,  road-sides  at  Cohasset,  and  other 
places  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  77. 

The  Black  Thorn — Sloe — (Prunus  spinosa),  Pursch. 
A  thorny  shrub,  ranging  in  height  from  six  to  twelve 
feet ;  leaves,  obovate,  elliptical ;  flowers,  solitary,  white  ; 
fruit  scarcely  as  large  as  a  hazel-nut ;  drupe  globous  ; 
pulp  somewhat  harsh  to  the  taste ;  not  ripe  until  winter, 
in  which  season  only  it  can  be  eaten.  In  Europe,  wine 
is  made  from  the  fruit,  which  tastes  like  port  wine,  and 
is  of  a  beautiful  red  color.  The  flowers  are  used  as  tea  ; 
not  only  as  a  beverage,  but  are  considered  useful  in  puri- 
fying the  blood,  h. 

The  Cherry  (Prunus  cerasus),  Juss.  The  cherry  tree 
is  often  forty  feet  in  height,  with  smooth,  grayish-black 
bark ;  leaves,  oval  oblong,  unequally  notched,  or  serrate, 
abruptly  pointed ;  branches  spreading ;  flowers  white  ; 
fruit  globular,  hanging  in  small  pedicels  of  from  two  to 
three.  Originally,  the  fruit  of  this  tree  was  not  larger 
than  peas,  as  is  still  the  case  with  the  Wild  Cherry 
(Prunus  avium),  De  Cand.,  which  many  naturalists  de- 
scribe as  a  peculiar  genus.  Drupes  globous  and  fleshy ; 


PLANTS.  263 

seed,  stone-like  and  hard ;  kernel  very  bitter.  A  consid- 
erable portion  of  brown  gum  exudes  from  the  back.  The 
fruit  has  been  much  improved  by  cultivation,  both  in  size 
and  flavor.  There  are  but  two  original  species  of  cherry 
trees,  viz  :  the  sweet  English  Cherry  Ox  Heart,  and 
the  common  Sour  or  Morello  Cherry.  The  numerous 
varieties  produced  by  long  culture — the  Mayduke,  and 
others — may  all  be  referred  to  one  or  the  other  of  these 
two;  though  Professor  De  Candolles  distributes  them 
into  four  species.  The  Sour  Cherry  is  the  most  common 
and  most  valuable  for  culinary  purposes,  whether  used 
fresh  from  the  tree  or  in  a  dried  state.  The  Morella,  a 
fine  variety,  with  a  rich  purple  juice,  was  used,  in  former 
days,  for  making  brandy  or  cherry  bounce.  The  latter 
is  distinguished  from  others  of  the  race,  by  its  smooth, 
leathery  leaves.  Cherries  were  originally  brought  to 
Rome  from  Cerasus,  a  city  of  Pontus,  in  Lesser  Asia, 
first  by  Crassus,  or  Lucullus,  seventy  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  whence  their  name,  Cerasus.  Choke 
Cherry  (C.  serotina),  Hook,  and  Sand  Cherry  (C. 
pumila),  Michx.,  are  natives  of  the  United  States.* 

The  Grape  or  Choke  Cherry  (Prunus  padus),  De 
Cand.,  is  a  shrub  or  tree,  with  elliptical,  doubly  serrate 
leaves  ;  white  flowers ;  the  fruit,  small  berries,  hangs  in 
clusters,  black ;  seed  round  and  hard ;  taste,  astringent 
and  bitter.  Found  in  damp  woods,  but  often  planted  in 
gardens  as  an  ornament.  *? . 

The  Cherry  Bay  or  Cherry  Laurel  (Prunus  lauro- 
cerasus).  Leaves  oval,  lanceolate,  slightly  notched,  ever- 
green ;  flowers,  white,  upright,  and  arranged  in  clusters. 


*  It  is  stated  that  there  are  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  varieties 
of  the  Cherry,  of  which  fifty  belong  to  the  Red  Morello. 


264  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

The  fruit,  resembling  black  cherries,  oblong,  and  pointed 
at  one  end.  Native  of  Trebizond,  but  frequently  planted 
in  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean ;  some- 
times as  far  north  as  Germany,  where,  however,  the  fruit 
never  ripens.  Fruit  is  thin,  black,  of  a  sweetish  taste, 
but  not  poisonous.  Leaves,  flowers,  and  kernels  contain 
a  large  quantity  of  prussic  acid  ;  wherefore,  if  eaten  in 
large  quantity,  they  are  not  only  dangerous,  but  prove  a 
a  deadly  poison.  The  taste  resembles  that  of  bitter 
almonds,  h. 

The  Strawberry  (Fragaria  vesca),  Alpine,  Wood,  or 
English  Strawberry.  Calyx  concave,  deeply  five-cleft; 
receptacle  oblong;  becomes  enlarged  and  conical,  pulpy 
and  scarlet,  forming  the  fruit,  and  bearing  the  minute, 
dry  achenia,  or  seeds,  scattered  over  its  surface.  Leaves 
oblong,  notched,  hairy,  and  ternate ;  stems,  or  rather 
runners,  creep  over  the  earth  for  several  feet,  occasion- 
ally taking  root,  thus  serving  as  a  propagation  of  the 
plant.  Flowers  in  May  or  June.  The  flavor  of  the 
wild  strawberry  is  considered  superior  to  that  of  the 
cultivated,  of  which  there  are  many  varieties.  Among 
them  is  the  Hautboy  (F.  elatior,  Ehrh.) — Chili  straw- 
berry and  Hovey's  Seedling — a  relative  species,  which 
blooms  perpetually.  Is  in  Europe  cultivated  in  gardens 
by  way  of  ornament,  and  trained  to  climb  on  a  trellis. 
The  fruit,  however,  although  beautiful,  has  no  flavor.  2£. 

Cinque-Foil — Five-Finger —  Goose-  Grass  (Poten- 
tilla  anserina).  Stem  creeping ;  leaves  irregular;  vel- 
vety above,  silver-hued  below  ;  feather-veined  ;  flowers, 
yellow  ;  receptacle  dry  and  persistent.  Native  of  Lap- 
land and  Norway,  but  very  common  in  North  America. 
Grows  in  pasture  fields  and  by  road-sides.  Said  to  be  a 


PLANTS.  265 

specific  in  curing  the  thrush  or  sore  mouth  of  cattle.  2£. 
Many  varieties. 

The  Raspberry  (Rubus  fruticosus),  Tourne,  Endl. 
Leaves  pinnate,  unequally  toothed,  oblong,  and  palmate  ; 
stalk  and  branches  armed  with  briars;  flowers  white, 
composed  of  five  petals.  Found  growing  wild  in  woods  or 
waste  fields,  and  creeping  along  the  earth,  and  frequently 
taking  root,  makes  whole  acres  inaccessible,  forming  a 
tangle  of  briars.  Fruit  broad,  composed  of  minute  glo- 
bules or  carpels,  on  a  protuberant,  spongy  receptacle, 
either  deciduous  or  persistent.  Flavor  very  pleasant ; 
considered  wholesome  and  refreshing.  Wood,  burnt  into 
charcoal,  is  used  in  Europe  in  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder, h. 

The  Antwerp  Raspberry  (Rubus  idaeus),  De  Cand. 
Lower  leaves  pinnately  three  or  five  foliate ;  leaflets 
broad-ovate,  cottony  on  under  surface.  Stem  and  branches 
erect  or  procumbent,  and  armed  with  prickles.  Found  in 
Europe ;  native  of  mountain  forests  or  stone-covered  hills. 
Transplanted  in  the  United  States.  Cultivated  largely 
in  gardens,  on  account  of  its  fragrant  and  well-flavored 
fruit.  The  bright  red  berries  are  used  in  a  fresh  state 
as  fruit ;  preserved  with  sugar,  or  prepared  as  jam  or 
raspberry  vinegar,  are  every  where  much  esteemed. 
There  are  many  varieties,  as  the  White  Raspberry  (Tri- 
florus),  Three-Flowered,  and  Thimble-berry  (Rubus 
occidentalis),  etc.,  found  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  h. 

The  Blackberry  (Rubus  villosus),  Ait.  Calyx  spread- 
ing, five-cleft ;  petals  five,  deciduous.  Half  shrubby 
plants.  Stems  armed  with  prickles;  fruit  inseparable 
from  the  juicy,  deciduous  receptacle ;  consists  of  about 
twenty  roundish,  shining,  black,  fleshy  carpels,  collected 
23 


266  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

into  an  ovate  or  oblong  head;  subacid,  well-flavored ; 
ripe  in  August  and  September.  Several  varieties,  all 
growing  wild.  Bristly  Blackberry  (R.  hispidus),  De 
Cand.,  Dewberry  (Rubus  canadensis,  or  trivialis),  Ph., 
which  is  a  fine  fruit,  and  generally  preferred  before  the 
others.  Valuable  medicinal  qualities  are  attributed  both 
to  the  berries  and  the  root.  ]?. 

ROSE  FAMILY. — ROSACES. — Juss.  This  tribe  is  re- 
markable for  the  number  and  variety  of  its  genera.  The 
rose-bush,  naturally  low  and  shrubby,  can,  by  cultivation, 
be  made  to  attain  to  a  considerable .  height.  Leaves  five 
to  seven,  feather-veined ;  leaflets,  elliptic-lanceolate. 
Flowers,  mostly  solitary  ;  sometimes  single,  consisting  of 
but  five  petals  (the  latter  greatly  multiplied  by  culture)  ; 
large,  beautifully  colored  and  delightfully  fragrant ;  stalk 
and  branches  armed  with  numerous  recurved  thorns  and 
prickles.  The  rose,  distinguished  by  its  beauty  and 
fragrance,  has  been  most  appropriately  termed  the  queen 
of  the  flowers.  The  fruit  is  the  fleshy  or  berry-like  red 
calyx-tube,  called  a  Hip,  Avhich  contains,  within  a  rather 
hard  envelope,  a  sweetish  pulp,  enclosing  numerous  seeds, 
surrounded  with  bristle-like  hairs.  The  rose  is,  however, 
seldom  propagated  by  seeds,  but  rather  by  offsets  or  cut- 
tings. The  roses  of  Persia  and  Cashmere,  celebrated  for 
their  odor,  furnish  the  delightful  perfume  known  as 
"Otto  of  Roses,"  which  is  so  costly  that  but  few  can 
afford  to  buy  it.  Nevertheless,  one  drop  is  sufficient,  so 
penetrating  and  enduring  is  its  fragrance,  to  perfume  a 
wardrobe  or  chest  of  drawers  for  years.  The  flower  petals 
are  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  The  hips  are,  or 
rather,  used  to  be  eaten  as  fruit,  and  the  seeds  were  for- 
merly employed  as  medicine  for  purifying  the  blood. 
The  Swamp  Rose  (R.  Carolina),  Michx.,  Prairie  Rose 


PLANTS.  267 

(R.  setigera),  and  Sweet  Briar  (Rosa  rubigenous),  all 
bearing  hips,  grow  wild  in  North  America.  R.  Damas- 
cene*, White,  Provence  (R.  centifolia),  Japan  Rose 
(R.  multiflora),  Ayrshire  Rose  (R.  arvensis),  etc.  etc., 
are  all  cultivated  in  gardens,  and  brought  to  great  per- 
fection.* T2. 

The  White  Thorn,  English  Hawthorn  (Cratsegus 
oxyacantha)  is  a  bush  with  rugged  branches,  armed  with 
sharp,  tapering  thorns  half  an  inch  in  length.  Leaves 
incised,  wide  and  variously  lobed ;  fruit,  or  pome,  fleshy 
or  somewhat  mealy,  containing  from  one  to  five  bony, 
one-seeded  carpels.  Grows  wild,  but  is  often  planted  in 
hedges  to  enclose  fields.  The  wood  is  used  in  Europe 
for  making  whip-handles.  ^. 

The  Medlar  (Mespilus  germanica)  is  a  thorny  shrub, 
or  rather  low  tree,  with  oblong,  lanceolate  leaves ;  downy 
or  pilous  on  under  surface ;  flowers  single  and  solitary, 
appearing  in  April  or  May;  fruit  globular,  brown,  with 
one  hard  seed,  is  pleasant  to  the  taste,  but  so  astringent 
that  it  can  not  be  eaten  when  freshly  gathered,  but  must 
be  left  to  mellow.  Belongs  to  the  Cratageii  or  thorn 
family  mentioned  in  Shakespeare.  T?. 

The  Mountain  Ash  or  Bird  Berry,  Rowan  Tree 
(Sorbus  aucuparia),  De  Cand.,  an  ornamental  tree,  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height ;  leaves  smooth,  pointed, 
and  serrate  or  notched ;  buds  round  and  covered  with 
down.  Cultivated  for  its  ornamental  clusters  of  scarlet 
berries.  Only  valuable  for  its  beauty,  as  the  malic  acid 
contained  in  the  berries  renders  them  uneatable,  although 
in  Europe  they  are  distilled  into  a  kind  of  brandy  and 

*  This  beautiful  genus  includes,  according  to  late  naturalist?,  one 
hundred  and  forty-six  species,  but  the  varieties  produced  by  cultiva- 
tion amount  to  near  two  thousand. 


268  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

vinegar.  Thrushes  feed  greedily  upon  the  fruit.  The 
hard  wood  is  esteemed  in  some  departments  of  cabinet 
work.  h. 

The  Apple  Tree  (Pyrus  malus)  has  oblong,  abruptly- 
acuminate  leaves,  mostly  downy  on  under  surface ;  stem 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  feet  high ;  branches  geniculate  ; 
fruit  depressed,  globous  or  oblong,  umbilicate  at  base. 
Branches  and  twigs  spreading  towards  the  top  from  a 
broad,  bushy  crown.  Brought  originally  from  Middle 
Asia,  but  now  grows  wild  in  Germany  and  other  parts 
of  Europe  so  abundantly  that  it  is  reckoned  as  native. 
The  Romans,  according  to  Pliny,  cultivated  twenty-two 
varieties,  but  there  are  now,  it  is  said,  one  thousand  vari- 
eties, if  not  more,  raised  in  the  United  States.  The 
Wild  or  Common  Crab  Apple,  native  of  the  Middle 
States,  although  rough,  hard,  and  sour,  so  as  to  be  alto- 
gether uneatable — the  common  ancestor  of  the  present 
race — is  now  becoming  scarce  in  the  old  settlements  of 
Pennsylvania.  In  former  times  the  ripe  fruit  was  much 
sought  after,  as  it  was  much  used  for  preserves.  Its 
loss,  however,  is  more  than  made  up  for  by  the  excel- 
lence of  the  present  race.  The  apple,  conducing  in  so 
many  various  ways  to  the  nutriment  and  comfort  of  man, 
may  be  considered  as  being  not  among  the  least  of  the 
many  gifts  bestowed  so  liberally  by  the  Beneficent  Cre- 
ator, h. 

The  Common  Pear  (Pyrus  communis),  Linn.,  Endl. 
Branches  more  erect  than  those  of  the  apple  tree ;  leaves 
smooth,  notched,  and  oblong.  In  a  wild  state,  found 
armed  with  thorns,  which  are  lost  when  the  tree  is  culti- 
vated. Found  wild  in  the  forests  of  Europe,  but  has 
been  known  and  planted  in  gardens  from  the  earliest 
times.  The  Romans  had  twenty-two  varieties  (Pliny). 


PLANTS.  269 

The  French  excel  in  the  culture  of  the  pear.  The  fruit 
is  sweeter  than  that  of  the  apple  ;  it  is  esteemed  equal 
with  the  apple  for  usefulness,  and  in  one  respect  superior. 
Being  more  juicy  and  containing  more  sugar,  it  is  used 
for  making  the  wine  called  Perry ;  nevertheless,  although 
the  flavor  is  superior  to  that  of  cider  made  from  the 
juice  of  the  apple,  the  wine  does  not  keep  near  so  well. 
The  wood  is  used  by  cabinet  makers  and  turners,  h. 

The  Quince  Tree  (Pyrus  cydonia),  Tourne.  Named 
for  Cydonia,  a  town  in  the  island  of  Crete,  whence 
it  was  brought  and  transplanted  in  Europe.  Leaves 
oval ;  under  surface  downy ;  flowers  white,  tinged  with 
purple,  stand  singly  at  the  end  of  the  short  twigs  ;  fruit 
large,  lengthened  at  base,  clothed  with  a  soft  down  or 
wool,  yellow  when  ripe  ;  resembles  a  pear  more  than  an 
apple.  It  is  very  rough  to  the  taste,  hard  and  astringent 
when  eaten  raw  ;  the  odor  is  extremely  pleasant,  and  as 
the  fruit  loses  all  its  harshness  when  boiled,  quinces  are 
much  estesmed  for  jellies  and  preserves.  The  seeds  are 
enclosed  in  a  mucilaginous  envelope,  which  dissolves 
readily  in  warm  water.  This  mucilage  is  used  in  many 
ways,  and  considered  equal  to  Gum  Arabic.  T2. 

TWENTY-EIGHTH  FAMILY. — POMEGRANATE  PDNICA, 
so  called  from  Carthage,  where  it  was  first  transplanted. 
Fruit  many-celled ;  leaves  deciduous,  without  the  mar- 
ginal vein. 

Pomegranate  (P.  Granatum),  arborescent  ;  leaves 
lanceolate,  standing  opposite,  smooth,  entire  ;  flowers  on 
short  foot-stalks,  are  scarlet,  large,  and  make  a  fine  ap- 
pearance ;  the  fruit,  about  the  size  and  form  of  a  large 
apple,  is  highly  ornamental  and  of  a  fine  flavor.  The 
rind  hard  and  leather-like,  serves  to  protect  numerous 
seeds,  which,  of  oblong  shape,  red  and  glossy,  sometimes 


270  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

number  one  hundred,  are  about  the  size  of  grains  of 
wheat,  and  lie  embedded  in  a  rich,  juicy  pulp,  somewhat 
acid,  but  of  fine  flavor.  In  a  wild  state  the  pomegranate 
is  only  a  shrub,  but  under  culture  becomes  a  tree,  often 
twenty  feet  in  height.  Originally  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  Persia,  and  Lesser  Asia,  transplanted  thence  to 
south  of  Europe.  The  taste  of  the  fruit  is  pleasant, 
sub-acid,  and  cooling,  like  that  of  the  currant.  Both 
the  rind  of  the  fruit  and  bark  of  the  root  are  considered 
as  an  excellent  vermifuge. 

Dwarf  Pomegranate  (P.  Dana),  shrubby ;  leaves 
lanceolate,  acute.  Native  of  West  Indies,  where  it  is 
used  as  a  hedge  plant.  Four  to  six  feet  high  ;  flowers 
purple,  smaller  than  the  foregoing,  often  double. 

TwEXTY-XixTH  FAMILY.  —  MYRTACE^.  —  MYRTLE 
BLOOMS. — First  of  this  race  is 

The  Clove  or  Nail  Tree  (Caryophyllus  aromaticus). 
A  beautiful,  ornamental  tree,  about  thirty  feet  high  :  in 
shape  resembles  the  bay  tree ;  the  leaves,  however,  are 
rather  smaller.  The  branches  are  four-cornered,  instead 
of  round  ;  flowers  reddish-white  :  the  fruit,  divided  into 
two  compartments,  contains  about  forty  seeds,  each  over 
an  inch  in  length ;  color  dark  brown.  Every  part  of 
the  plant  is  highly  aromatic ;  the  buds  taken  off  before 
blooming  and  dried  are  the  well  known  cloves  of  com- 
merce ;  they  are  pulled  while  green,  and  dried  by  smoke 
or  heat,  which  turns  them  brown. 

The  Clove  (clou,  Fr.,  a  nail)  is  in  common  use,  every- 
where known  as  a  favorite  spice,  and  useful  in  medicine, 
as  it  yields  a  pungent  volatile  oil. 

The  Melalcuca  Cajiputi  and  Eucalyptus  resin  if  era, 
natives  of  India,  belong  also  to  the  family  of  Myrtaceae. 
Cajeput  oil  is  obtained  from  the  first,  Gum  Kino  from 


PLANTS.  271 

the  second.  These  valuable  trees  abound  in  the  Molucca 
Islands,  but  are  found  both  in  the  East  and  West  In- 
dies, b. 

The  Common  Myrtle  (Mjrthis  communis),  Tourne. 
Leaves  oblong,  ovate,  shining,  with  a  marginal  vein ; 
flowers  white  ;  the  whole  shrub  prized  for  its  elegance  of 
form  and  evergreen  fragrant  leaves  and  blossoms.  It 
was  sacred  to  Venus,  and  the  brows  of  bloodless  victors 
were  adorned  with  myrtle-wreaths.  At  Athens  it  was 
an  emblem  of  civic  authority.  It  grows  as  a  shrub  to  a 
height  of  six  feet,  seldom  higher ;  bears  a  dark  blue 
berry,  resembling  that  of  the  Juniper  tree.  There  is  a 
species  in  Syria,  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the.  fruit, 
which,  about  as  large  as  a  cherry,  is  red  or  white,  and  of 
a  pleasant  flavor.  A  myrtle  crown  is  an  indispensable 
ornament  of  a  bride  in  the  countries  where  the  shrub  is 
native.  Found  everywhere  in  places  bordered  by  the 
Mediterranean,  h. 

The  Pimento  or  Allspice  (Myrthus  pimenta),  has 
oblong,  shining,  leather-like  leaves ;  flowers  small  and 
insignificant ;  bears  dark-hued  berries,  something  larger 
than  those  of  the  Juniper,  of  pungent,  aromatic  taste. 
Grows  in  the  East  Indies,  a  large  tree,  thirty  feet  high. 
The  berries,  known  as  allspice,  are  used  everywhere. 
Yield  a  pungent,  aromatic  oil,  useful  for  many  pur- 
poses. \i- 

Carolina  Allspice  or  Sweet-scented  Shrub  belongs  to 
the  Melastoma  or  myrtle-like  plants.  Fruit,  like  a  rose 
hip,  but  dry  when  ripe,  and  larger,  enclosing  the  large 
achenia. 

The  Guava  (Psidium  pyriferum)  grows  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  cultivated  in  other  tropical  countries,  is  about 
the  size  of  a  common  apple  tree ;  bark  hard  and  smooth ; 


272  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

leaves  elliptical  and  somewhat  curled  ;  flowers  inodorous 
and  resemble  those  of  the  apple  ;  fruit  about  the  size  of 
a  common  pear  ;  rind,  yellowish-green  and  leather-like, 
encloses  reddish-colored  pulp  of  pleasant  taste,  not  unlike 
a  mixture  of  raspberries,  strawberries,  and  sugar ;  con- 
tains also  a  number  of  seeds.  The  celebrated  Guava 
jelly  is  made  from  it. 

The  Cajeput  Tree  (Melaleuca  leucadendron).  The 
leaves  of  this  tree  are  lanceolate,  acute,  and  many- veined. 
The  flowers  stand  in  spikes  or  ears  like  corn.  Height  of 
tree  often  sixty  feet ;  bark  white.  The  flowers  are 
white ;  odor  sourish,  but  pleasant ;  fruit  about  as  large 
as  peas,  contain  very  minute  seeds.  The  lower  part  of 
the  trunk  being  black  while  the  upper  is  white,  this  tree 
has  therefore  received  the  name  of  Melaleuca  (Greek, 
black-white).  From  the  fruit  and  leaves  an  essential 
oil,  known  as  Cajeput  oil,  used  in  medicine,  is  obtained. 
Fruit,  flowers,  leaves — in  short,  the  whole  tree  yields  a 
peculiarly  pleasant  odor,  h . 

THIRTIETH  FAMILY. — CUCURBITACE.E. — SICYOS,  the 
ancient  name  of  the  Cucumber. 

The  Briony  (Bryonia  alba)  has  heart-shaped  palmate, 
five-lobed  leaves,  which  are  notched,  rough,  and  callous  ; 
the  flowers,  white,  and  not  longer  than  the  calyx  or  cup, 
are  separated  into  different  sexes  ;  grows  everywhere  on 
hedges.  Root  thick,  white,  fleshy,  and  full  of  warty 
excrescences,  contains  an  acrid  juice  used  as  a  purgative, 
likewise  a  considerable  amount  of  starch.  The  root, 
although  full  of  sap  in  the  summer  season,  becomes  hard 
and  woody  in  the  winter.  2£ . 

The  Gherkin  or  Garden  Cucumber  (Cucumis  sati- 
vus),  L.,  leaves  heart-shaped,  five-cornered,  and  toothed ; 
stem  rough,  hairy,  soft,  and  trailing  5  flowers  yellow  • 


PLANTS.  273 

fruit  cylindrical,  covered  with  bristle-pointed  protuber- 
ances ;  when  unripe,  greenish-yellow ;  ripe,  gold  color. 
The  cucumber  came  originally  from  the  East  Indies,  but 
now  cultivated  everywhere,  and  is  prized  as  an  article  of 
table  diet,  particularly  in  the  form  of  pickles.  The 
seeds  are  said  to  be  used  in  Europe  for  the  preparation 
of  a  cooling  drink,  but  in  the  United  States  are  never 
employed  in  the  same  way.  Vines  creep  to  a  great  dis- 
tance over  the  earth,  fastening  their  tendrils  to  whatever 
object  is  near,  they  will  climb  to  a  considerable  height. 
There  are  many  varieties.  O  • 

The  Cantelenpe  or  Musk  Melon  (Cucurnis  melo),  in 
growth  and  appearance  of  vine,  bears  much  resembance 
to  the  common  cucumber.  The  leaves  are  roundish  or 
orbicular,  with  two  or  three  abrupt  angles,  and  heart- 
shaped  ;  fruit  oval  or  round,  arid  often  from  four  to  six 
inches  in  diameter  ;  has  a  pleasant  aromatic  odor  ;  rind 
often  longitudinally  ridged ;  the  flesh,  when  mature,  yel- 
lowish, succulent,  and  of  a  saccharine  spicy  flavor,  almost 
melting  on  the  tongue.  Originally  a  native  of  Kalmuck, 
Tartary,  it  is  now  largely  cultivated  in  Southern  Europe 
and  the  United  States.  Varieties  numerous. 

The  Water  Melon  (Citrullus  vulgaris)  resembles  the 
foregoing.  Fruit  ten  to  twenty  inches  long,  with  an 
oblong,  firm,  fleshy  rind,  and  when  mature,  has  a  sweet, 
tender,  watery,  frosty-looking  pulp  of  a  red  or  flesh 
color ;  seeds  black  or  purplish-brown.  Much  prized  in 
all  warm  countries  for  the  refreshment  it  affords.  The 
juice,  sweet  and  cooling,  is  recommended  as  being  very 
salutary,  and  particularly  wholesome.  Another  plant, 
nearly  allied,  often  seen  in  gardens,  which  bears  a  differ- 
ent fruit,  known  by  the  name  of  Citron  Melon,  has  a 
tough,  firm  rind,  which  is  used  for  making  preserves. 
12* 


274  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

The  whole  aspect  of  the  plant  and  external  appearance 
of  the  fruit  so  closely  resemble  the  above-mentioned, 
that  it  is  supposed  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  variety — 
perhaps  Var.  Pastera  of  Seringe  and  De  Cand. 

Colocynth  (Cucumis  colocynthis)  has  a  slender,  hairy, 
prostrate  stem ;  leaves  heart-shaped,  oblong,  smooth ; 
under  side  covered  with  coarse  white  down ;  fruit  globous, 
yellow  when  ripe  ;  flowers  also  yellow.  A  native  of 
Japan.  Flesh  white,  dry,  and  intolerably  bitter.  The 
extract  is  the  colocynth  of  the  shops,  poisonous,  but 
medicinal.  O  • 

Prickly  Cucumber  (C.  Anguria)  is  about  the  size  of 
a  hen's  egg,  covered  with  prickles.  Native  of  Jamaica  ; 
cultivated  for  the  green  fruit,  used  only  for  pickles.  Q. 

Cucurbila,  the  Latinized  Celtic  name  for  a  gourd. 

The  Pumpkin  (Cucurbita  pepo)  has  leaves  rough, 
heart-shaped,  blunt,  notched,  and  five-lobed ;  fruit  very 
large,  smooth,  yellow  ;  flowers  yellow.  Native  of  the 
East,  but  now  cultivated  everywhere  as  food  for  cattle. 
The  fruit,  which  is  sometimes  used  as  a  kitchen  vege- 
table, contains  a  great  number  of  white  seeds.  There 
are  many  varieties,  known  as  Bottle  Gourd,  Giant 
Pumpkin,  etc.,  the  latter  very  large.  O. 

Flat  Squash  (C.  Melopepo),  leaves  hairy ;  stem  pro- 
cumbent ;  fruit  depressed  or  flat,  sometimes  smooth,  at 
others  warty.  Cultivated  for  its  fruit,  a  well  known 
kitchen  vegetable.  O. 

Crooked  Necked  or  War  ted  Squash  (Cucurbita  ver- 
rucasa),  leaves,  stem,  flowers,  resemble  the  above;  long 
neck  curved,  thick  at  base.  Common  in  gardens,  with 
numerous  well  known  varieties.  Mentioned  by  Nuttale, 
as  cultivated  by  the  Indians  west  of  the  Mississippi.  O. 
THIRTY-FIRST  FAMILY. — GROSSULACETE. — CURRANTS. 


PLANTS.  275 

—  Shrubs  either  unarmed  or  spiny;  bearing  berries; 
known  as  currants  and  gooseberries.  Natives  of  North 
temperate  zone. 

The  Red  Currant  (Ribes  rubrum).  This  shrub  has 
five-lobed,  blunt  leaves ;  flower  flat,  hanging  in  clusters, 
bearing  round  red  berries  of  an  acid,  but  pleasant  taste. 

The  White  Currant  is  a  variety  of  the  red ;  larger 
and  sweeter.  Grows  and  thrives  well  in  shady  places, 
wherefore  it  is  often  planted  in  hedges.  A  handsome 
shrub,  common  in  southern  latitudes  in  woods  and 
hedges.  A  very  pleasant  wine  is  made  from  the  ex- 
pressed juice,  which  latter,  boiled  with  sugar  into  jelly, 
is  considered  very  suitable  to  be  used  in  fevers.  ^. 

The  Black  Currant  (Ribes  nigrum).  Leaves  five- 
lobed,  sprinkled  on  both  sides  with  yellowish,  resinous 
dots ;  grows  in  shady  woods,  on  the  margin  of  brooks ; 
often  planted  in  gardens.  The  fruit  and  berries  have  a 
peculiar  odor  that  is  not  pleasant  to  some  persons ;  nev- 
ertheless, the  juice  makes  good  wine.  T?. 

The  Gooseberry  (Ribes  grossularia),  De  Cand.,  Var- 
sativum.  This  well  known  bush  has  leaves  obtusely 
rounded,  three  and  five-lobed;  from  two  to  four  feet 
high ;  branches  very  thorny.  Fruit  a  white  or-  red 
berry  as  large  as  a  hazel-nut,  or  even  larger ;  pulpy, 
and  filled  with  small  seeds.  Eaten  as  fruit,  or  prepared 
in  preserves  or  pastries  for  the  table.  Much  cultivated 
in  England,  where  wine  is  made  from  the  juice,  h. 

Cactacea.  The  Cactus  family  succeeds  the  Ribes, 
according  to  the  regular  order,  and  are  distinguished 
particularly  by  having  no  stem  on  which  the  leaves  are 
sustained,  but  the  latter,  hard,  fleshy  and  prickly,  grow 
out  from  each  other;  and  thus,  when  the  leaves  are 
strong  enough,  form  an  upright  shrub;  if  the  contrary. 


276  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

is  a  procumbent  and  creeping  plant.  Most  of  this  genus 
have  tufts  of  fine  spines,  which  are  easily  broken.  The 
flowers  of  many  are  very  beautiful ;  a  few,  highly  fra- 
grant, grow  out  from  the  leaf-like  stalks,  or  come  forth 
from  the  edge  of  the  joints,  and  are  succeeded  by  a 
smooth,  crimson,  fig-like,  eatable  fruit. 

The  cactacea  are  natives  of  South  America,  where 
they  often  form  a  thicket  which  none  can  penetrate 
without  receiving  severe  injury.  Transplanted  thence 
to  Europe,  where  they  are  much  esteemed,  as  they  thrive 
without  costing  any  trouble. 

The  principal  specimen  of  the  race  is 

The  Indian  Fig  (Cactus  opuntia),  which  has  mostly 
an  upright  stem;  sometimes  procumbent,  and  formed 
of  the  thick,  fleshy  oval  leaves,  from  which  protrude 
tufts  of  innumerable  fine  prickles.  When  old,  the  color 
is  brown.  The  flowers,  rather  insignificant,  are  yel- 
low, and  the  red,  fig-like  fruit  has  an  insipid,  sweetish 
taste.  O. 

Cereus. —  Great  Flowering  Cactus  (Cactus  grandi- 
florus),  De  Cand.,  Linn.  Stems  cylindrical  or  pris- 
matic, branching ;  the  angles  not  very  prominent,  on 
which  are  placed  clusters  of  five  or  six  wool-like  bris- 
tles; flowers  large,  beautiful,  and  snow-white;  calyx 
gold  color,  and  very  long  stamens.  Expands  in  the 
evening,  endures  throughout  the  night,  and  fades  in  the 
morning.  The  expansion  is  so  rapid  that  the  soft  trem- 
bling of  the  petals  (ninety  in  number)  can  be  seen. 
Fruit  eatable,  slightly  acid,  reddish-yellow,  and  about 
the  size  of  a  goose  egg.  It . 

The  Snake  Cactus  (Cactus  flagelliformis),  Lin.,  con- 
sists of  a  number  of  stalks,  slender,  cylindrical,  about 
the  size  of  the  little  finger.  Indistinctly  articulated — 


PLANTS.  277 

creeping,  and  full  of  fine  thorns.  Bears  beautiful 
bright  pink  flowers.  Often  cultivated,  both  in  Europe 
and  America.  Blooms  readily.  2f. 

THIRTY-SECOND  FAMILY. — UMBELLIFERJE.  —  Plants 
belonging  to  this  large  family  generally  grow  high ; 
found  almost  everywhere;  spring  up  spontaneously  in 
meadows,  fields,  and  woods.  Flowers  peculiar,  consist- 
ing of  numerous  flowerets,  so  arranged  as  to  form  clus- 
ters resembling  an  umbrella;  as,  for  instance,  in  the 
Millefoil  and  Carrot.  Stems  for  the  most  part  hollow  ; 
leaves  plumous  or  feather-like ;  root  of  most  of  the  um- 
belliferae  spindle-shaped,  fleshy,  often  sweet  and  eatable, 
as  the  carrot,  celery,  etc.  Many,  as  the  caraway,  ani- 
seed, and  fennel,  contain  a  volatile  oil,  which  is  extracted 
from  the  seeds. 

The  Chervil  (Scandix  cerefolium).  Stem  jointed, 
smooth,  towards  the  top  downy ;  leaves  feathery  or  bi- 
pinnatifid  (as  in  the  carrot),  leaflets  or  segments  oval, 
and  many-cleft  (multifid).  Grows  in  fields  and  gardens 
in  the  south ;  the  tender,  pale  green  leaves  have  a  pleas- 
ant aromatic  odor  when  rubbed  between  the  fingers ; 
therefore  often  used  in  soup.  Considered  very  whole- 
some. Seeds  black.  O- 

The  Carrot  (Daucus  carota),  Tourn.  Has  a  rough 
pale  green  stem ;  leaves  two  to  three,  pinnatifidly  dis- 
sected, feathery;  segments  many-cleft.  Grows  to  a 
height  of  three  feet;  root  long,  spindle-shaped,  is  about 
two  inches  in  circumference,  yellow,  and  fleshy.  Con- 
tains much  sugar ;  used  as  a  vegetable ;  sometimes,  cut 
in  small  pieces,  is  dried,  roasted,  and  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  coffee.  Considered  very  wholesome,  especially 
for  children,  as  it  is  an  excellent  vermifuge ;  grows  wild 
in  fields  and  pasture  lands.  O- 


278  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

The  Parsnep  (Pastinaca  saliva),  Tourn.  Stem  fur- 
rowed (sulcate)  ;  leaves,  shining  smooth  above ;  segments 
many-cleft;  under  surface  downy.  About  three  feet 
high;  grows  wild  in  fields  and  waste  places;  root  long 
and  thin  in  the  wild  state ;  cultivated,  is  fleshy,  white, 
sweet,  and  more  than  a  foot  long.  Has  a  sweet,  spicy 
flavor;  esteemed  as  an  excellent  vegetable;  is  often 
used  in  soup.  Seeds  flat  and  oval.  $  . 

Dill  (Anetum  graveolens).  Stalk  naked  and  quill- 
shaped  ;  leaves  blue-green,  feathery  (plumous)  and 
many-cleft ;  flowers  bell-shaped,  but  rather  flat.  Seeds, 
greenish-brown,  two  and  a  half  lines  long;  taste  and 
odor  highly  aromatic,  but  not  altogether  agreeable ; 
native  of  Egypt,  but  cultivated  in  Europe.  Used  in 
pickles,  or  for  flavoring  various  dishes.  O  • 

The  Fennel  (Feniculum  vulgare).  Stem  naked,  four 
to  six  feet  high,  strongly  fluted  or  grooved ;  leaves, 
three  or  more,  plumous  (filiform),  many-cleft,  blue- 
green,  and  smooth  ;  flowers  large  umbels ;  root  yellow, 
and  fleshy,  like  the  carrot.  Fruit  three  lines  long,  is 
grayish,  with  brownish  stripes.  The  whole  plant  is 
highly  aromatic ;  seeds  sweet  and  spicy,  are  used  as 
medicine  in  dyspepsia;  by  some  for  flavoring  many 
preparations.  The  F.  dulce  or  Sweet  Fennel,  native 
of  Italy,  on  account  of  its  succulent  root  and  lower 
leaves,  is  used  in  cookery ;  considered  wholesome  and 
refreshing  food.  2£. 

Asafc&tida  (Ferula  asafoetida)  has  a  roundish,  blue- 
gray  stem  ;  leaves  trifoliate  and  compressed  ;  root  large, 
perennial,  resembling  a  parsnep ;  black  outside,  but 
white  within.  Height  about  nine  feet ;  seeds  smooth  and 
brown.  Native  of  Persia,  where  it  is  cultivated  in  the 
fields ;  found  also  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia  and  China. 


PLANTS.  279 

The  whole  plant,  but  especially  the  root,  contains  a 
penetrative,  subtile  juice  or  gum.  which  smells  like 
garlic,  and  is  used,  with  us,  as  medicine,  but  in  the 
East  for  various  purposes.  To  collect  the  roots  being 
considered  an  object  of  some  importance,  those  whose 
business  it  is  proceed  as  follows.  A  party,  provided 
with  hooks,  go  forth  and  remove  the  earth  from  the 
roots,  leaving  them  bare,  break  off  the  stem,  and  lay 
it  with  the  leaves,  over  the  roots,  and  press  all  down 
with  a  stone.  In  a  fortnight  they  return,  in  order  to 
collect  the  sap,  which,  the  roots  having  now  no  leaves 
to  nourish,  exudes  from  the  upper  end  where  it  was 
broken.  The  upper  part  of  the  root  is  now  cut  off,  the 
rich,  white,  cream-like  sap  flowing  freely,  is  carefully 
gathered  in  an  earthen  vessel :  when  it  ceases  to  flow 
any  longer,  the  remaining  portion  of  the  root  is  covered 
as  before,  until  a  further  quantity  of  sap  shall  arise. 
The  odor  of  the  fresh  juice  is  so  powerful  that  one 
drachm  of  it  is  stronger  than  a  hundred  weight  of  the 
dry  gum.  As  the  sap  dries  away,  it  thickens,  and  be- 
comes of  a  reddish-yellow  color ;  is  considered  a  valuable 
drug,  and  much  used  in  medicine,  especially  in  such 
cases  where  garlic  would  be  employed.  The  ancient 
Eomans  were  well  acquainted  with  it  by  the  name  of 
Sylphium  ;  used  it  for  seasoning  various  cookeries,  in 
preference  to  garlic.  Known  also  in  the  early  days  as 
medicine,  and  in  the  present  considered  a  specific  in 
nervous  diseases. 

The  Spotted  Cowbane  or  Water  Hemlock  (Conium 
maculatum),  belongs  in  this  place,  but  is  described  else- 
where. See  Poisonous  Plants  (Cryptogamiae),  Class 
24,  L. 

Parsley  (Apium  petroselium)  has  a  smooth,  angular, 


280  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

branching  stem ;  leaves  shining  green ;  the  lower  ones 
much  dissected  ;  flowers  umbellate  and  greenish-yellow 
or  white.  Grows  wild  in  Sardinia ;  cultivated  in  North- 
ern Europe  and  the  United  States  in  gardens.  The  root 
and  leaves  are  used  to  season  various  soups  and  dishes 
for  table  use.  A  decoction  of  the  seeds  is  considered  a 
specific  in  some  diseases,  and  is  also  used  as  a  wash  to 
expel  vermin.  $ . 

Celery  (Apium  graveolens).  The  whole  plant  is 
nearly  bare  of  leaves ;  stem  or  branches  erect,  forked, 
many  springing  from  the  root :  leaves  few  and  much 
dissected ;  occasionally  found  growing  wild,  beside 
ditches,  in  marshy  grounds,  or  salt  licks.  Flowers 
greenish-white,  small,  and  hanging  in  numerous  umbels. 
The  root,  when  cultivated  in  gardens,  is  round,  about 
the  thickness  of  a  small  wrist,  fleshy ;  the  stem  four  feet 
high.  The  peticles  or  stalks,  when  blanched  become 
succulent  and  tender,  and  are  much  valued  as  a  favorite 
salad.  The  taste  is  aromatic,  and  imparts  a  pleasant 
flavor  to  soup,  etc.  Considered  as  a  useful  medicament 
in  some  diseases.  Another  variety,  Turnip  Rooted 
Celery  (Rapaceum),  De  Cand.,  is  cultivated  by  ama- 
teurs. 5  . 

The  Common  Caraway  (Carum  carvi)  has  an  erect, 
angular,  deeply  furrowed  stem  about  two  feet  high,  and 
branding  from  the  ground ;  leaves  large,  pinnate,  feath- 
ered ;  root  small,  fleshy,  and  as  thick  as  a  little  finger. 
Found  frequently  in  meadows,  pasture-fields,  and  fence- 
rows.  Planted  in  gardens,  the  root  is  larger,  and  the 
aromatic  flavor  of  the  whole  plant  improved  by  culture. 
The  seed  is  the  most  valuable  part,  from  its  peculiar 
spicy  odor,  and  pungent,  but  pleasing  bitter  taste.  Con- 
tains a  volatile  oil,  used  in  medicine  as  a  carminative. 


PLANTS.  '      281 

Cultivated  for  its  aromatic  properties,  and  fruit  so  well 
known  in  domestic  economy.      $  , 

Bibernell  (Pimpinella  saxifraga).  Black,  terete 
(columnar),  and  fluted.  Leaves  multified  (many-cleft). 
Abounds  in  Europe ;  grows  on  dry  hills,  and  among 
rocks  in  borders  of  shady  woods.  The  odor  of  the  root 
is  pungent,  aromatic,  and  disagreeable,  but  tastes  sweet 
and  spicy.  Considered  useful  in  relieving  dyspepsia; 
the  leaves  are  used  as  salad.  1C. 

The  Anise  (Pimpinella  anisum).  Stem  resembles 
that  of  the  above  described.  The  radical  leaves  round- 
ish, heart-shaped;  the  others  three-cleft.  Found  wild 
in  Egypt  and  the  Isle  of  Chios ;  cultivated  in  Europe 
and  America.  Flower  umbels  shallow,  nearly  flat.  The 
seed  a  line  and  a  half  in  length,  has  a  sweet  and  highly 
aromatic  taste,  and  contains  a  volatile  oil  which  is  useful 
in  dyspepsia,  and  forms  a  prominent  ingredient  in  all 
carminatives.  Also  used  in  domestic  economy.  The  oil 
is  said  to  be  poisonous  to  pigeons.  O . 
C*briafto?er(Coriandrum  sativum)  has  a  columnar,  smooth, 
naked '  stem,  branching  only  towards  the  top ;  leaves 
feathery  and  much  dissected;  flowers,  umbels,  flat,  sus- 
tained on  long  pedicels.  Grows  in  Southern  Europe  as 
a  weed;  nevertheless  in  the  north  and  United  States  it 
is  often  cultivated.  The  whole  plant  has  the  odor 
of  the  Cimex  or  bedbug,  whence  the  name  given  it 
by  the  Greeks  Koris,  a  bug.  Nevertheless  the  ripe 
seeds  have  a  pleasant,  aromatic  taste,  and  are  used  as 
spice  and  a  nucleus  for  sugar  plums.  Notwithstanding 
the  offensive  odor  of  the  fresh  herb,  Professor  De  Can- 
dolles  states  that  the  Tartars  prepare  a  favorite  pottage 
from  it.  Considered  to  possess  considerable  medical 
properties  as  a  carminative.  O. 


282  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

THIRTY-THIRD  FAMILY. — CAPRIFOLEACEJE.  —  Hox- 
EYSUCKLES. — Shrubs  or  rarely  herbaceous,  with  round 
branches,  sometimes  twining,  sometimes  slightly  knobbed. 
Flowers  axillary;  do  not  bloom  in  regularly  arranged 
umbels,  but  in  terminal  verticils  or  whorls.  Fruit,  a 
berry.  The  first  representative  of  this  genus  is 

The  Garden  or  Chinese  Honeysuckle  (Lonicera  ca- 
prifolium),  a  twining  shrub;  stem  ten  to  fifteen  feet 
long ;  branching,  upper  branches  often  hairy.  Leaves 
connate,  or  perfoliate,  flowers  verticillate,  or  arranged 
around  the  stem  at  the  axil  of  the  leaf,  with  tubes  taper- 
ing at  the  base,  resembling  a  Cornucopia.  Berries,  at 
maturity,  reddish-orange.  Honeysuckles,  with  their 
beautiful  flowers,  varied,  white,  yellow,  and  pink,  to- 
gether with  the  delightful  odor  they  send  forth,  have 
always  been  favorite  plants  for  decorating  arbors  and 
porticoes,  and  are  much  frequented  by  humming-birds  on 
account  of  the  honey  they  contain.  Several  varieties 
American  Woodbine  grows  wild;  Lon.  Grata  (Ever- 
green Honeysuckle),  Lon.  Sempervirens  (Trumpet  Hon- 
eysuckle), etc.  *?. 

The  Elder  Bush  (Sambucus  nigra).  A  high  shrub, 
with  leaves  downy  and  in  pairs,  usually  three  and  an 
odd  one.  Grows  everywhere  in  shady  places,  along 
hedge-rows  and  fences;  rather  troublesome.  Branches 
filled  with  soft  white  pith.  The  greener  portion  of  this 
shrub,  rubbed  between  the  fingers,  has  an  unpleasant 
odor,  which,  inhaled  to  any  extent,  produces  dizziness ; 
taste,  pungent  and  bitter.  Nevertheless  it  is  a  useful 
plant ;  the  leaves  are  employed  in  poultices  to  disperse 
swelling;  a  decoction  of  the  flowers,  fresh  or  dried, 
proves  a  powerful  sudorific,  and  wine  is  made  from  the 
juice  of  the  black  berries.  The  berries  themselves  are 


PLANTS.  283 

also  boiled  with  sugar  into  jam,  which  is  used  in  sickness 
to  produce  perspiration.  $  . 

The  Dwarf  Elder  (Sambucus  ebulus).  More  of  a 
plant  than  a  shrub;  has  an  erect  warty  stem;  leaves 
dissected,  feathery;  flowers  reddish- white.  The  whole 
plant  has  a  most  unpleasant  odor,  and  on  this  account  is 
useful  in  driving  away  mice  and  other  vermin  equally 
annoying.  $ . 

The  Snow  Ball — Guelder  Rose  (Viburnum  opulus), 
is  a  large  bush  found  wild  in  the  woods,  or  by  the  sides 
of  brooks  in  Europe,  although,  being  ornamental,  often 
cultivated  in  gardens.  Leaves  three  or  five  lobed,  pointed 
and  toothed ;  flowers  snow-white,  and  arranged  in  spheres 
or  orbicular  clusters ;  branches  filled  with  pith  ;  berries 
red,  sharp,  and  bitter ;  sought  after  by  birds.  T2. 

The  High  Cranberry  (V.  Oxycoccus  Americana)  also 
belongs  to  this  genus.  Fruit  red,  acid ;  ripens  late,  re- 
maining on  the  bush  after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  resem- 
bles the  common  cranberry;  sometimes  substituted  for 
it.  h. 

The  Water  Elder  (Viburnum  lantana),  Hobble  Bush, 
American  Wayfaring  Tree.  Leaves  oval,  unequally 
notched,  and,  together  with  the  stalks  and  branchlets, 
covered  with  a  ferruginous  down.  Berries  oblong;  in 
summer,  first  yellow,  then  red  ;  in  September  black  and 
mealy  :  taste  disagreeably  sweet,  and  harsh ;  considered 
good  in  dysentery.  The  small  twigs,  hollowed  out,  are 
made  into  stems  for  Turkish  pipes. 

THIRTY-FOURTH  FAMILY.  —  LORANTHACE^E.  —  Are 
shrubby  plants  with  knotted  or  tubercled  stems,  rooting 
firmly  as  parasites  upon  other  trees,  and  living  upon 
their  juices. 

The  Mistletoe  (Viscum   album).     Stem   forked   and 


284  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

branching ;  leaves  blunt,  obtuse  above,  ovate ;  flowers 
yellowish-green,  sit  closely ;  four  or  five  on  short,  axillary 
spikes  upon  the  summit  of  the  branch;  berries  white, 
globular,  and  filled  with  a  gum-like,  viscid  pulp.  The 
root  of  this  parasite  is  so  firmly  inserted  through  the 
bark  into  the  wood  of  the  tree,  that  when  the  trunk  is 
sawed  through,  the  place  of  conjunction  can  not  be  dis- 
tinguished. The  berries  are  a  favorite  food  with  birds 
particularly  thrushes,  and,  on  account  of  their  viscous  or 
glue-like  pulp,  together  with  the  whole  plant,  are  used 
for  making  bird-lime.  T^- 

THIRTY-FIFTH  FAMILY. — CORNACE^. — CORNELS. — 
Cornus,  Tourne.,  Endl.  Chiefly  small  trees  and  shrubs. 
The  species  best  known  in  the  United  States  is 

The  Dogwood — Flowering  Cornus — (Cornus  mas- 
cula),  a  small  tree,  or  large  shrub,  with  numerous  smooth 
branches ;  leaves  oval  and  pointed.  Blooms  very  early 
in  spring.  Flowers,  yellowish-white,  hang  in  terminal 
capitate  clusters ;  corolla,  greenish  or  red.  Fruit  oblong  ; 
when  ripe,  red  and  glassy ;  seed  solitary,  also  oblong ; 
pendulous ;  has  a  subacid  taste,  and  is  eaten  fresh  or 
preserved. 

THIRTY-SIXTH  FAMILY.  —  RUBIACEVE.  —  MADDER- 
WORTS. — Herbs,  shrubs,  or  trees.  Contains  many  varie- 
ties of  most  valuable  plants. 

The  Wood-  Warden  (Asperulaodorata),  likely  Sweet- 
Scented  Bed  Straw  (Gallium  trifolium),  of  Michx.,  has 
a  smooth,  erect  stalk  ;  leaves  oval-lanceolate  ;  blooms  in 
white  tufts  or  tassels  ;  fruit  covered  with  hooked  prickles  ; 
native  of  Europe  ;  about  one  foot  high  ;  grows  in  cleared 
spots  or  on  wooded  hills  ;  odor  very  fragrant ;  taste  some- 
what bitter;  used  in  the  preparation  of  medicated  wine 
(hippocras).  ^4 . 


PLANTS.  285 

The  Coffee  plant,  Peruvian  bark,  Cinchona,  Caro- 
lina Pink,  Cape  Jessamine,  etc.,  all  belong  to  this 
family. 

Madder  (Rubia  tinctorum).  Stem  herbaceous,  or 
plant-like,  procumbent,  lying  on  the  ground,  angular, 
diffusely  branching,  and  furnished  with  short  prickles : 
leaves  lanceolate,  arranged  in  verticils  or  horizontal  rings 
(whorls)  ;  flowers  yellow.  Brought  originally  from  the 
East,  it  is,  at  the  present  day,  cultivated  both  in  Europe 
and  America,  for  the  sake  of  the  large  reddish-brown 
roots,  which  are  well  known  to  yield  a  valuable  red  col- 
oring matter,  which  is  much  used  by  dyers,  and  never 
fades.  This  sap  of  the  roots,  or  the  plant  itself,  is  so 
penetrating,  that  if  animals — cows,  for  instance — are  fed 
upon  it,  the  milk,  skin,  and  even  bones,  become  tinged 
with  a  red  color.  Has  a  musty  odor ;  taste,  a  kind  of 
bitterish  sweet.  Considered  highly  medicinal,  it  is  used 
in  many  diseases.  If. 

The  Coffee  Shrub  (Coffea  arabica),  Willd.,  or  rather 
tree,  has  smooth,  acuminate,  lanceolate  leaves;  flowers 
white,  five-cleft ;  general  appearance  like  that  of  the 
Dogwood.  Berries  two-celled,  oval-globular ;  when  fully 
ripe  dark  red ;  each  cell  containing  one  seed,  which  is  the 
well-known  coffee  bean.  Blooms  nearly  throughout  the 
year.  Native  of  Arabia  Felix  and  Ethiopia;  trans- 
planted thence  to  East  and  West  Indies.  Although 
the  Coffee  tree,  in  the  South,  or  in  its  native  land,  often 
reaches  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet,  in  Europe,  even  where 
carefully  nursed  in  conservatories,  it  never  attains  to  more 
than  five  feet.  There  are  various  modes  of  gathering  the 
berries.  On  many  plantations  they  cut  off  the  branches, 
and  strip  them  of  the  fruit,  thus  rendering  the  harvesting 
more  expeditious.  But  as  the  berries  are  not  all  equally 


286  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ripe,  the  quality  of  the  coffee  obtained  from  the  berries 
thus  collected  is  considered  inferior  to  the  other  methods 
involving  more  labor.  Others,  as  in  Arabia,  never  gather 
the  coffee-berries  until  they  readily  fall  off  on  shaking  the 
tree ;  this  crop,  being  fully  matured,  is  greatly  preferable 
to  the  other.  The  fruit,  which,  in  color  and  shape, 
resembles  that  of  the  cornel  tree,  contains  two  seeds  en- 
closed each  in  a  cell  containing  a  white,  fleshy,  sweetish, 
somewhat  gelatinous  pulp.  In  order  to  clear  the  coffee- 
berries  from  the  outer  skin  and  pulp,  they  are  placed  in 
heaps  and  covered  with  leaves,  in  order  to  undergo  a 
slight  fermentation,  which,  softening  the  hulls,  renders 
them  easy  of  removal.  This  completed,  the  coffee  is  put 
in  the  sun  or  air  to  dry,  and  afterwards,  as  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  husk  still  remains,  it  is  carried  to  the  peeling 
or  winnowing  mills  ;  or,  as  there  are  many  planters  who 
have  no  mills,  the  coffee  is  beaten  in  large  wooden  mor- 
tars or  troughs,  where  it  is  totally  divested  of  its  coats 
and  impurities,  the  broken  and  bad  grains  picked 
out,  etc.,  after  which,  it  is  fit  for  market.  The  soil, 
climate,  and  method  of  curing  the  coffee  have  a  great 
effect  on  its  quality.  The  Mocha,  Surinam,  and  Java 
coffee  are  considered  the  best.  The  use  of  this  luxury 
has  been  common  in  the  East  for  three  centuries  and  a 
half;  known  in  Europe  for  two  hundred  years — not, 
however,  generally.  To  prepare  this  much  esteemed 
beverage,  the  berries  are  first  roasted,  then  ground  in  a 
mill,  and  afterwards  boiled.  Coffee  exerts  a  great  influ- 
ence on  the  nervous  system.  It  enlivens  the  spirits, 
assists  digestion,  and  relieves  headache ;  but  in  delicate 
habits,  if  taken  too  strong,  it  occasions  watchfulness, 
tremors,  and  aggravates  many  of  those  complaints  which 
are  denominated  nervous.  Persons,  therefore,  of  high 


PLANTS.  287 

nervous  temperament  should  be  careful  not  to  use  it  to 
excess,  i? . 

The  Fever  or  Peruvian  Bark  (Cinchona  officinalis) 
is  the  product  of  an  evergreen  tree,  eighteen  feet  in 
height  and  two  in  circumference.  Leaves  lanceolate-oval, 
smooth  and  shining  ;  flowers  are  pale  red ;  the  fruit  en- 
closed in  an  oval  capsule.  The  bark,  rugged  and  of  an 
ash-gray  color,  contains  a  yellow,  intensely  bitter  sap, 
which  is  most  efficacious  in  the  cure  of  fevers,  and  much 
esteemed  in  medicine.  Quinine,  the  chemically  prepared 
extract  of  this  bark,  is  considered  a  specific  in  intermit- 
tents.  There  are  many  varieties  and  relative  genera,  b . 

Evergreen  herbs,  smooth,  creeping,  with  opposite  leaves. 
Button  Weed,  Partridge  Berry  (M.  repens),  etc. 

THIRTY-SEVENTH  FAMILY. — VALERIANACE^:. — (Class 
3.  Linn.) 

Common  Valerian  (Valeriana  officinalis).  Stem  erect, 
furrowed,  naked,  and  branching ;  leaves  pinnately  divided ; 
bloom's  in  panicles ;  grows  in  woodlands,  pasture-fields, 
or  beside  ditches.  The  root  is  short  and  fibrous ;  odor 
aromatic,  but  unpleasant ;  taste  bitter.  Cats  are  so  fond 
of  this  plant  that,  on  meeting  with  it,  they  roll  them- 
selves over  and  over  upon  it  in  a  kind  of  intoxication. 
The  root  is  used  to  relieve  cramp.  The  extract  of  valer- 
ian is  recommended  in  nervous  affections.  2£. 

Pawnee  Lettuce — Field  Valerian — (Valeriana  oli- 
toria).  Stem  forked  ;  leaves  obtuse-lanceolate ;  flowers 
bluish.  Grows  in  fields,  alluvial  grounds,  or  in  vine- 
yards. Radical  leaves  are  used  as  food,  dressed  as  salad, 
or  otherwise  cooked.  Sometimes  called  Lamb-lettuce. 
Oregon  Indians  cook  and  eat  it.  O. 

Nearly  related  to  this  race  is 

The  Scabius  or  Mourning  Bride  (Scabiosa  arvensis). 


288  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Stem  bristly,  leaves  cleft  and  feathery,  pinnatifid ;  heads 
of  flowers  dense,  cylindrical,  and  of  a  beautiful  dark 
purple.  Found  wild  in  old  fields,  but,  on  account  of  its 
beauty,  cultivated  in  gardens. 

Teaselworts — Fuller's  Thistle  or  Teasel  (Dipsacus 
fullonum).  Stem  erect,  furrowed,  prickly;  leaves  ob- 
long, lanceolate,  serrate,  notched.  Flowers  whitish, 
sometimes  red,  in  large  oval  or  ovoid  heads ;  grows  wild, 
but  are  also  cultivated  for  the  use  of  the  clothiers — -ful- 
lonum— who  employ  the  heads,  with  their  hard  hooked 
scales,  to  raise  the  nap  upon  woolen  cloths.  For  this 
purpose  they  are  placed  on  a  revolving  drum.  In  rich 
soils  grows  to  a  height  of  five  feet,  but  is  very  brittle.  $  . 

THIRTY-EIGHTH  FAMILY.  —  COMPOSITE.  —  ASTER- 
WORTS.* — The  most  extensive  and  most  natural  of  all 
the  orders  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  is  always  distin- 
guished at  sight  by  its  capitate  flowers,  and  the  united 
anthers.  Flowers  collected  into  a  dense  head  composed 
of  many  florets,  perfect  or  imperfect,  on  a  common  re- 
ceptacle. The  flowers,  with  a  strap-shaped,  ligulate 
corolla,  are  called  rays  or  ray  flowers  ;  the  head  which 
presents  such  flowers  is  radiate.  Corolla  either  strap- 


*  Comprehends  one  thousand  and  five  species  at  present  known 
(1846),  and  about  nine  thousand  species,  being  nearly  one-ninth  of  all 
the  species  of  flowering  plants.  This  immense  order  is  diffused  all 
over  the  globe,  but  in  very  different  proportions.  The  Composite 
furnish,  comparatively,  but  few  useful  products.  A  bitter  principle 
pervades  the  whole,  which,  combined  with  mucilage  and  resin,  becomes 
tonic  and  febrifuge.  Some  are  anthelmintics,  from  the  prevalence  of 
the  resinous  principle ;  a  few,  the  Lettuce,  Dandelion,  Artichoke,  and 
some  others,  are  used  for  food ;  but  the  most  numerous  class  of  the 
Composite  are  the  ornamental  plants.  The  order  abounds  with  the 
most  beautiful  specimens  of  the  floral  race,  alike  interesting  to  the 
florist,  and  of  easv  culture. — MAN.  BOTANY. — Tr. 


PLANTS.  289 

shaped  or  tubular,  in  the  latter  chiefly  five-lobed,  val- 
vate  in  the  hild;  the  veins  bordering  the  margins  of 
the  buds.  The  tubular  flowers  compose  the  disk,  and  a 
head  which  has  no  ray  flowers  is  said  to  be  discoid. 

The  nineteenth  Class,  according  to  Linnaeus,  Syngo- 
nesiu  belongs  to  this  order.  The  first  according  to  this 
arrangement  is 

The  Dandelion,  corrupted  from  Dent  de  Lion,  Lion's- 
tooth  (Leontodon  taraxacum).  Leaves  all  radical  or 
issuing  from  the  root,  clawed  and  toothed,  recurving 
backwards  towards  the  base  of  the  leaf,  runcinate.  Makes 
its  appearance  in  the  early  spring ;  grows  in  every  field 
where  there  is  grass ;  the  stem  or  scape  is  round,  hollow, 
bearing  a  single  head  of  yellow  (ligulate  corolla)  flowers. 
After  the  flower  is  decayed,  the  scape  rises  higher,  and 
bears  a  head  of  perfected  seed  and  seed-down,  the  airy, 
globular  form  of  which,  conspicuous  among  the  grass,  is 
well  known  to  children,  who  call  them  witches,  and  take 
great  pleasure  in  blowing  them  about,  and  also  in  mak- 
ing chains  of  the  stems.  The  latter,  smooth,  round,  and 
hollow,  contain  a  milky  juice ;  are  very  fragile.  Root 
spindle-shaped,  like  the  rest  of  the  plant,  is  very  succu- 
lent, and  although  bitter,  is  eaten  either  as  greens  or 
salad.  Said  to  possess  medicinal  properties ;  is  used  in 
disease  of  the  liver.  It . 

Lettuce  (Lactuca  sativa),  milky,  Lat.  Stem  two  to 
four  feet  high ;  branches  horizontal,  and  clothed  with  nu- 
merous small  leaves,  variable  in  form,  but  the  lower  ones 
are  mostly  roundish ;  upper,  heart-shaped ;  heads  numer- 
ous and  paniculate ;  flowerets  yellow.  This  plant,  called 
Salad,  is  universally  known,  and  has  been  cultivated 
from  the  earliest  times.  Taste  somewhat  bitterish, 


IS 


290  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

but  refreshing ;  many  varieties ;  native  place  un- 
known. O. 

Salsify —  Oyster  Plant  (Tragopodon  pratensis).  Leaves 
long  and  grass-like;  flowers,  in  some  varieties,  yellow; 
mostly  violet-purple  with  a  fuscous  or  greenish-brown 
tinge.  Stem  about  three  feet  high.  Root  fusiform, 
fleshy,  slightly  bitter,  contains  a  milky  juice.  Culti- 
vated for  the  sake  of  the  root,  which,  when  properly 
cooked,  has  something  the  flavor  of  fried  oysters.  2£ . 

Black  Salsify — German  Schwartz  Wurtzel  (Scor- 
zonera  hispanica).  Stem  branching ;  leaves  long,  wavy, 
toothed ;  grows  wild  in  the  south  of  Europe ;  cultivated 
in  Germany ;  flowers  pale  yellow,  and  of  pleasant  odor. 
Root  cylindrical,  about  as  thick  as  a  finger,  fleshy,  black 
without,  white  within ;  used  as  a  vegetable,  makes  a  pal- 
atable dish. 

Chickory  or  Succory  (Chicorium  intybus).  Stem 
erect,  branching  horizontally;  heads  of  flowers  on  the 
sides  of  stem  and  branches,  either  solitary  or  in  pairs ; 
flowerets  blue;  leaves  coarsely  dentate.  Found  every- 
where in  Europe,  in  borders  of  fields  or  by  road-sides. 
The  turnip-shaped  root  has  a  bitter  taste ;  considered  to 
possess  medicinal  qualities.  Frequently  cut  in  small 
pieces,  dried,  and  mixed  and  roasted  with  coffee ;  it  is 
however,  by  no  means  an  improvement  on  the  latter.  A 
near  relative  is  the  Endiva  Sativa,  used  as  winter 
salad. 

The  Common  Groundsel  (Senecio  vulgaris),  leaves 
dark-green,  irregular ;  flower-heads  yellow  ;  pappus 
bearded  or  hairy.  Grows  everywhere  as  a  weed,  never- 
theless is  gathered  as  affording  good  food  for  parlor 
birds.  O. 

Arnica,  Leopards  Bane  (Arnica  montana).     Name 


PLANTS.  291 

supposed  to  be  corrupted  from  Ptarmica.  Leaves  de- 
cussate (in  pairs  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles), 
longish  oval ;  flowers  large,  radiate,  and  gold-colored ; 
pappus  clothed  with  rough  bristles.  Grows  on  hilly 
plains  in  Europe ;  found  in  some  few  localities  in  the 
United  States.  Considered  valuable  in  medicine  for  em- 
brocations, etc.  O. 

The  Colt's  Foot  (Tussilago  fa,rfara).  Shafts  of  flow- 
ers notched;  scape  scaly,  provided  with  oblong,  obtuse 
leaves,  upper  arising  after  the  flowers  are  withered ;  radi- 
cal leaves  are  oval,  heart-shaped,  angularly  dentate,  dark 
green  above,  covered  with  a  cottony  down  below.  Found 
in  moist  grounds  or  beside  ditches.  Tastes  bitter,  and 
contains  a  mucilaginous  juice,  which,  when  properly  pre- 
pared, is  considered  a  good  expectorant.  It . 

The  Safflower,  Bastard  Saffron  (Carthemus  tincto- 
rius).  Stem  rather  woody  and  smooth  ;  leaves  oval, 
thorny,  and  deeply  toothed  ;  flower  yellowish-red ;  native 
of  Egypt  and  East  Indies ;  cultivated  in  Europe,  occa- 
sionally in  fields ;  requires  a  Avarm  climate.  Useful 
both  for  the  coloring  matter  contained  in  its  tubular  fila- 
mentous flowers  and  as  a  nursery  medicine.  The  small 
florets  are  pulled  from  the  heads  and  carefully  dried ; 
impart  a  bright  yellow  color  to  water,  but  colors  spirits 
of  wine  red.  It  is  mixed  with  the  garden  saffron,  and 
is  used  in  the  preparation  of  rouge.  O- 

The  Dahlia  or  Georyine  (Georgina  variabilis).  This 
well  known  and  beautiful  flower  is  a  native  of  Mexico  ; 
brought  to  Europe  fifty  years  ago.  First  consisted  of 
only  one  set  of  large,  single-rayed  petals,  surrounding  a 
yellow  disk  and  red  ;  now,  however,  through  culture  the 
whole  plant  is  improved ;  the  flowers  are  large,  very 
double  and  beautiful,  sporting  into  innumerable  varieties 


292  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

of  every  conceivable  shade  of  crimson,  purple,  red, 
rarely  yellow,  blooming  from  July  until  arrested  by  the 
frost.  Dahlias  are  cultivated  by  dividing  the  tuberous 
roots,  o  • 

The  Musk  Thistle  (Carduus  nutans)  has  a  branching 
thorny  stalk ;  leaves  much  dentated,  clothed  with  hairs. 
and  prickly ;  heads  roundish,  ovoid,  spiny ;  florets  mostly 
reddish-purple.  Grows  in  old  waste  fields  or  by  road- 
sides. The  seeds  form  the  favorite  food  of  the  Thistle 
Finches.  2£.  Also  called  Canada  Thistle.  Native 
of  Europe. 

The  Burdock  (Articum  lappa).  Stem  branching, 
roughish  ;  leaves  heart-shaped,  ovate,  petiolate,  cobwebby 
tomentose ;  radical  ones  one  to  two  feet  long  and  very 
broad ;  florets  reddish-purple,  with  bluish  anthers ;  flower 
heads  short  and  spiny.  The  root  about  two  feet  long 
and  proportionably  thick,  fleshy,  slimy,  and  of  a  sweet- 
ish-bitter taste,  is  used  in  a  decoction  for  purifying  the 
blood.  Native  of  Europe.  Grows  in  waste  lands,  by 
fences,  etc.,  and  is  a  most  troublesome  weed.  2£. 

The  Artichoke  (Cinara  scolymus).  Leaves  alternate, 
thorny,  and  deeply  serrate  ;  stalk  two  feet  high,  bearing 
purple  flowers  ;  root  thick,  fleshy,  and  somewhat  bitter. 
The  receptacle,  together  with  the  fleshy  bases  of  the 
scales  of  the  involucre,  are  boiled  and  eaten  as  asparagus, 
the  tubers  at  the  roots,  used  instead  of  potatoes.  Native 
of  all  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean ;  culti- 
vated farther  north,  but  requires  some  care  and  a  rich 
soil.  2£. 

Sun  Flower  (Helianthus  annuus).  Leaves  heart- 
shaped,  cordate,  triple-veined,  denticulate,  or  slightly 
toothed ;  stalk  often  six  or  seven  feet  high  ;  flowers  single- 
rayed,  nodding,  large,  and  expanding ;  disk  flowers 


PLANTS.  293 

brown  at  the  summit.  Native  of  Peru ;  cultivated  both 
in  Europe  and  America  for  sake  of  the  seeds  (akenes) , 
which  yield  a  fine  oil.  Mice  are  very  fond  of  the  seeds, 
and  are  sure  to  find  them.  Q. 

Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Helianthus  tuberosus),  i.,  e., 
Giro-sole  of  the  Italians ;  Dwarf  Sun  Flower,  and  cor- 
rupted into  Jerusalem.  Leaves  oval  and  rough ;  flowers 
small ;  roots  tuberous,  afford  good  food  for  cattle.  Also 
used  as  potatoes,  but  contain  much  less  farina.  Native 
of  Brazil,  but  cultivated  both  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  2f. 

The  Cardoon  (De  Candolle)  is  a  variety,  also  culti- 
vated for  the  thick,  fleshy  petioles  and  ribs  of  leaves, 
rendered  white  by  blanching,  after  the  manner  practiced 
with  celery.  If. 

The  Roman  CJiamomile  (Anthemis  nobilis,  C.  Oflfici- 
nalis).  Stem  diffuse,  branching,  shaggy,  runs  along  the 
ground;  leaflets  or  divisions  linear,  lanceolate,  much- 
toothed,  downy.  Flower  rays  white  ;  disk  yellow.  Has 
a  pleasant,  aromatic  odor ;  tastes  very  bitter.  Used  as  a 
specific  in  cramp.  Grows  in  the  south  of  Europe,  but 
is  also  cultivated  in  gardens. 

Common  or  Field  Chamomile  (A.  arvensis)  much 
resembles  the  foregoing.  2£. 

Yarrow  (Millefolium  Achillea),  so  named  because  its 
virtues  are  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Achilles. 
Stem  upright,  either  simple  or  branching  towards  the  top. 
Leaves  finely  dissected,  feathered,  from  whence  its  name 
Millefoil,  feathery ;  flowers  white.  Grows  everywhere,  in 
pastures,  fence  rows,  etc.  The  flowers  have  a  pleasant 
aromatic  odor,  but  are  harsh  and  bitter  to  the  taste  ; 
somewhat  astringent ;  quite  popular  as  a  tonic.  1C . 

Wormwood  (Artemisia  absinthium).     Leaves  gray- 


294  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ish-green,  clothed  with  silky  down ;  flower-heads  yellow, 
and  nodding.  Grows  about  four  feet  high  among  rub- 
bish, rocks,  and  by  road-sides.  Has  an  aromatic  odor, 
but  the  whole  plant  is  proverbially  bitter  and  of  power- 
ful medicinal  qualities  as  a  tonic,  stomachic  vermifuge, 
etc.  2£.  Terragon  (A.  Dracunculus),  used  for  salad, 
pickles,  seasoning  soup,  Southern  Wood  (A.  abrotanum), 
and  Mugwort  (A.  vulgaris)  belong  to  this  family.  De- 
dicated to  Diana  (Artemis)  of  the  Greeks. 

Pot  Marigold  (Calendula  officinalis).  Stem  upright, 
rough-haired ;  leaves  spatulate ;  flowers  large,  yellow. 
Native  of  Europe.  Found  in  vineyards,  but,  being  a 
handsome  plant,  is  cultivated  in  gardens.  Odor  unplea- 
sant ;  taste  bitter.  O-  Asters,  Chrysanthemum-like 
Bidens,  Spanish  Needles,  Beggarticks,  etc.,  belong  to 
this  race. 

The  Daisy  (Bellis  perennis),  Tourne.  Stem  naked, 
and  single  flowering  leaves  numerous  and  spatulate, 
spreading  from  the  root.  Blooms  amid  grass  ;  common 
in  Ireland,  but  cultivated  as  a  garden  flower  in  many 
places.  The  Germans  call  it  Goose  Flower.  2£. 

THIRTY-NINTH  FAMILY. — VACCINIA. — (Class  8,  L.) 

The  Common  or  Dwarf  Huckleberry  (Vaccinum 
myrtillis),  Sugar  Blueberry  is  a  small  shrubby  plant, 
branches  green,  more  or  less  angular ;  leaves  oval  yel- 
lowish, mostly  evergreen.  Flowers  pale  red ;  berries 
dark  blue.  Found  everywhere  in  the  woods  of  Northern 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  Resembles  the  box  or 
checkerberry.  Berries  much  admired  for  their  sub-acid, 
agreeable  taste,  are  used  as  fresh  fruit,  dried,  or  to  color 
wine.  Considered  wholesome  and  medicinal.  2£. 

Cranberry,  Red  Billberry  (Vaccinum  vitis  idsea). 
Also  a  small  shrub,  resembling  the  above  described. 


PLANTS.  295 

Flowers  bell-shaped — campanulate.  The  yellow-green 
leaves  remain  on  the  bush  all  winter.  Berries  larger 
than  the  largest  peas  ;  red,  very  sour,  and  although  not 
unpleasantly  so,  rough  to  the  taste,  are,  when  prepared 
with  sufficient  sugar,  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  table 
diet ;  considered  wholesome  as  possessing  medicinal  pro- 
perties. 2£ . 

FOKTIETH  FAMILY. — ERIACE^:.* — (Class  10,  L.) 
Heath  (Erica  vulgaris),  a  well  known  plant,  that  in 
the  northern  countries  of  the  Old  World  covers  vast 
tracts  of  wild  land,  and  is  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and 
variety  of  its  flowers.  It  is  unknown  to  North  America, 
although  there  are  many  flowering  plants  embraced  in 
the  order  Eriaceae,  to  which  it  belongs.  Its  small,  but 
innumerable  red  flowers,  are  very  attractive  to  bees  for 
the  sake  of  the  honey  contained  in  their  calices.  It  is 
also  used  as  straw,  the  trailing  stems  being  very  suitable, 
and  in  Scotland  and  Ireland  the  plant  enters  largely  into 
the  manufacture  of  a  variety  of  rude  domestic  articles. 
Sometimes  it  is  made  to  serve  for  fuel.  2£ .  Many  rela- 
tive species  of  extreme  beauty  have  been  cultivated  in 
British  gardens,  and  nurtured  as  exotics,  and  from  the 
elegance  and  delicacy  of  their  tissue  and  colors,  form  the 
ornament  of  our  green  houses.  These  varieties  claim 
New  Holland  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  as  their 
native  places.  There  are  from  three  to  four  hundred 
varieties. 

Mountain  Laurel,  Rosebay  (Rhododendron  ferru- 
gineum),  L.  Leaves  smooth,  oblong,  green  above, 
brown  or  ferruginous  bslow ;  flowers  funnel-form,  stand 

*  But  one  or  two  of  this  family  (Heathworts)  are  known  in  America. 
The  true  Eriacece  are  chiefly  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  None 
in  Asia  or  Xew  Holland. — WOOD. — Tr. 


296  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

in  globous  clusters ;  very  beautiful,  pale  rose  color  or 
purplish,  glandular,  with  white  and  yellow  spots.  The 
whole  plant  is  highly  ornamental ;  found  in  the  United 
States  in  great  perfection,  also  on  the  Alps.  2£ .  The 
Azalias  also  belong  to  this  family. 

Common  Laurel,  Calico  Busk  (Kalmia  latifolio), 
stem  three  or  four  feet  high ;  branches  straggling  and 
crooked ;  leaves  dark-colored  evergreen.  Flowers  large, 
white,  spotted  with  red ;  found  in  the  North  of  Europe 
and  all  of  the  Atlantic  States.  Kalm,  from  whom  it  is 
named,  says  the  Swedes  called  this  the  Spoon  Tree,  be- 
cause the  Indians  made  spoons  from  its  wood.  Leaves 
narcotic  and  poisonous  to  some  animals.  K . 

Rosemary  rvild,  Thrift  (Ledum  palestre)  is  an  ever- 
green shrub  about  four  feet  high;  leaves  small  and 
brown  on  the  under  side.  Grows  everywhere  in  the 
north  on  moors  or  turf  lands  ;  leaves  are  bitter,  harsh, 
and,  it  is  said,  if  eaten,  produces  deafness.  Flowera 
star-shaped,  white  or  pink,  are  great  favorites  with 
bees.  Though  many  other  plants  might  be  named  in 
this  sub-class,  we  will  close  our  description  of  its  mem- 
bers with 

The  Benzoe  (Styrax  benzoin),  which  has  oblong, 
sharp-pointed  leaves ;  flowers  white,  hanging  in  panicu- 
late clusters ;  native  of  Sumatra  and  Java.  A  middle- 
sized  tree ;  bears  a  woody  nut-like  fruit ;  on  an  incision 
being  made  in  the  bark,  a  gum  exudes  plentifully ;  has 
an  agreeable  balsamic  odor,  known  as  Benzoin,  and 
used  as  a  cosmetic.  2f .  A  relative  species,  the  Storax 
Tree,  yields  the  article  known  in  the  shops  as  Gum 
Storax. 


PLANTS.  297 


THIRD  SUB-CLASS. — FLOWERING  SHRUBS. 

FORTY-FIRST  FAMILY. — OLEACE^:. — (Class  2,  L.) 
— Flower-petals  single,  inserted  on  the  calyx.  The  olive 
is  the  type  of  this  family. 

Tho  Common  Olive  (Olea  europaeae),  leaves  leathery, 
dark  above,  whitish  below,  lanceolate  and  margined; 
flowers  white,  come  forth  in  small  corymbs  or  tufts  from 
the  wings  of  the  leaves ;  growing  wild  it  is  only  a  shrub, 
cultivated  it  grows  into  a  considerable  sized  tree.  Native 
of  Asia,  but  transported  into  Italy  at  a  very  early  day ; 
farther  north  is  cultivated  in  conservatories.  The  fruit, 
half  an  inch  in  length  and  four  lines  thick,  is  of  oblong 
shape,  like  a  small  plum,  at  first  green,  afterwards  black  ; 
pulp  rather  pithy,  rough  and  bitter,  therefore  they  are 
never  eaten  raw.  Olives  are  prepared  for  table  use,  by 
soaking  them  in  ley-water,  in  which  ashes  have  been 
boiled,  then  transferred  to  clear  water,  where  they  are 
left  for  some  time,  changing  the  water  frequently ;  last 
of  all  pickled  with  salt  and  spices,  are  fitted  for  exporta- 
tion. They  are,  however,  more  valued  on  account  of  the 
sweet  oil  which  they  yield  abundantly,  and  which  is  not 
only  important  in  cookery,  but  used  for  numerous  other 
purposes.  For  making  sweet  oil  it  is  necessary  that  the 
fruit  be  perfectly  ripe  ;  the  oil  pressed  first  from  it  cold, 
is,  with  some  further  preparation,  the  well  known  Pro- 
vence oil.  The  portion  first  obtained,  very  sweet  and 
pleasant,  commands  the  highest  price,  and  is  called  Vir- 
gin Oil,  the  second  White  Sweet  Oil.  The  common 
olive  oil,  of  a  greenish-yellow  color,  is  obtained  from  the 
fruit  after  being  heated,  and  has  both  an  unpleasant  taste 
and  odor.  In  those  countries  where  the  olive  trees 
13* 


298  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

abound,  the  oil  is  in  general  use,  as  it  is  not  expensive. 
The  wood  makes  handsome  cabinet  work.  The  olive,  it 
is  said,  will  live  for  centuries,  and  it  is  supposed  that 
those  aged  trees,  still  found  on  Mount  Olivet  at  Jerusa- 
lem, are  the  same  under  whose  shadow  the  Saviour  rested. 
Two  of  them  measure  twenty-five  feet  in  circumference. 
In  the  days  of  mythology  the  olive  was  considered  sacred, 
and  even  in  the  present  time,  the  olive-branch  is  every- 
where recognized  as  the  emblem  of  friendship  and 
peace,  h. 

The  Ask  (Fraxinus  excelsior),  one  of  the  highest 
trees,  is  slender,  branches  marked  with  warts ;  bears 
handsome,  light  green  leaves,  very  much  indented ;  flow- 
ers small,  in  crowded  panicles;  buds  large  and  dark- 
colored.  Wood,  white  and  hard,  is  much  valued  by 
coach-makers  and  wheel- wrights.  ]2. 

The  Manna  Ash  (Fraxinus  ornus)  ;  leaves  unequally 
paired ;  leaflets  accuminate,  oval,  lanceolate ;  under  sur- 
face downy.  Flowers  greenish-yellow  and  of  agreeable 
odor.  Native  of  southern  Europe,  viz.,  Calabria.  The 
gum,  called  manna,  which,  in  the  warm  season  exudes 
from  the  bark,  is  the  sweet  sap  of  the  tree,  dried  hard 
by  exposure  to  the  air.  The  odor  of  this  honey-like 
fluid  is  unpleasant,  the  taste  slimy,  sweet,  and  nauseat- 
ing ;  it,  nevertheless,  possesses  some  valuable  medicinal 
qualities,  and  is  used  as  an  aperient  with  children,  h. 

The  Common  Lilac  or  Spanish  Privet  (Syringa  vul- 
garis),  a  large  bush  twenty  feet  high  ;  leaves  smooth, 
heart-shaped,  and  acuminate ;  flowers  white  or  of  various 
shades  of  purple,  stand  in  dense,  terminal  panicles ;  odor 
very  sweet.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  shrubs  found 
in  gardens;  cultivated  everywhere.  Native  of  Persia. 
Sometimes  known  as  Persian  Lilac. 


PLANTS.  299 

Privet  or  Prim  (Ligustrum  vulgare),  a  bush  with 
leaves  lanceolate,  smooth,  and  thick.  Flowers  white, 
agreeably  odorous,  in  clusters  or  terminal  panicles ;  ber- 
ries black,  filled  with  pulp  of  a  purplish-red  color ;  native 
of  Europe,  found  in  woods  and  hedges.  The  hard  wood 
is  used  by  turners. 

FORTY-SECOND  FAMILY. — DATURA. — (Class  5,  L.) 
Nux  Vomica  (Strychnos  nux  vomica)  is  a  tree  of  con- 
siderable size,  with  a  thick  crown  of  oval-shaped,  bald — 
awnless — greenish-white  leaves;  flowers  clustering  and 
umbellate.  Native  of  the  East  Indies,  where  it  is  often 
met  with.  Fruit  contains  three  to  four  round,  smooth, 
nut-like  seeds,  surrounded  with  a  mass  of  pulp,  which  is 
not  at  all  poisonous.  These  seeds,  called  Crow's  Eyes, 
are  remarkably  bitter  and  highly  poisonous.  The  far- 
famed  Boa  Upas  Tree  of  Java,  of  which  travelers  have 
given  such  exaggerated  accounts,  belongs  also  to  this 
family.  They  tell  us  of  its  growing  in  a  valley,  and 
being  so  fearfully  poisonous  that  everything,  whether 
animal  or  vegetable,  found  within  a  few  leagues  of  it,  is 
aifected  by  its  poisonous  influence.  As  the  tale  goes,  a 
poisonous  gum  exudes  from  its  bark ;  criminals  con- 
demned to  death,  are  sent  to  gather  it ;  any  one  who 
returns  from  the  tree  unpoisoned,  bringing  the  gum  as 
witness  of  his  having  been  there,  is  pardoned ;  this  is 
sometimes  the  case  when  the  wind  is  favorable,  for  if  the 
poisonous  breath  of  the  tree  reaches  the  unhappy  culprit 
he  is  lost.  This  account  of  the  Upas  Tree,  which  has 
supplied  Dr.  Darwin  with  a  highly  poetical  description, 
although  now  confuted,  has  heretofore  generally  been 
believed ;  nevertheless,  as  in  most  similar  accounts,  there 
is  some  truth  present,  although  mixed  up  with  much  fic- 
tion. It  is  highly  dangerous  to  sleep  under  any  tree  of 


300  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

the  Strychnos  family,  and  altogether  certain  that  the 
operative  element  of  the  Poison- tree,  swallowed  even  in 
an  unconsiderable  quantity  or  received  into  the  system 
through  a  wound  or  abrasion  of  the  skin,  however  slight, 
proves  deadly.  Another  description  of  Java  informs  us 
of  a  deep  ravine  found  there,  called  the  Valley  of  Death, 
in  which  no  living  thing  has  ever  been  known  to  exist, 
not,  however,  because  of  a  poisonous  tree,  but  that, 
through  a  number  of  fissured  rock  found  there,  supposed 
to  communicate  with  some  subterranean  volcanoes,  so 
great  a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  escapes,  that  any 
one  entering  with  the  sphere  of  this  mephitic  vapor  be- 
comes asphyxiate,  and  is  soon  suffocated.  Every  one 
knows  that  the  same  danger  attends  the  entering  of  a 
cellar  where  wine  is  fermenting.  These  two  accounts, 
mixed  up  together,  have  most  probably  formed  the  foun- 
dation of  the  marvelous  story  of  the  Upas  tree. 

FORTY-THIRD  FAMILY. — ASCLEPIADACE^:.  —  (Class 
5,  L.) — Plants  or  shrubs  with  an  acrid,  milky,  poison- 
ous sap  or  juice. 

Swallow  Wort  (Cynanchum  vincetoxicum).  Stem 
large,  stout,  and  branching ;  leaves  heart-shaped ;  flow- 
ers white,  standing  in  clusters ;  grows  everywhere  on 
barren  hills ;  height  two  or  three  feet.  The  root  has  a 
strong,  nauseating  odor ;  tastes  sweetish  at  first,  after- 
wards sharp  and  bitter ;  creates  vomiting  and  distressing 
sickness.  Branches  whitish  and  warty.  2£. 

The  Periwinkle  (Vinca  minor)  is  a  perennial  ever- 
green plant,  delighting  to  grow  in  the  shade  of  woods, 
etc.  Leaves  oblong,  lanceolate,  smooth;  flowers  blue, 
single,  and  inodorous,  have  long  footstalks.  Also  called 
Running  Box.  2£. 

The  Oleander  (Nerium  oleander)  is  an  erect  ever- 


PLANTS.  301 

green  shrub,  with  leathery,  coreaceous.  slender,  lanceolate 
leaves ;  flowers,  pale  red,  have  a  faint  odor,  like  that  of 
bitter  almonds.  This  beautiful  plant  has  been  brought 
us  from  the  East  Indies ;  delights  in  warmth,  and  re- 
quires a  great  deal  of  water.  In  countries  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean,  it  is  planted  on  the  banks  of  brooks. 
Common  in  Palestine,  growing  by  rivulets;  known  as 
Rose  Bay  Tree  ;  is  commonly  supposed  by  travelers  to 
be  the  plant  to  which  the  Psalmist  alludes,  Ps.  i.  3, 
and  xxxvii.  35.  Branches  soft,  and  contain  a  milky 
juice,  it. 

Several  other  American  plants,  known  as  varieties  of 
the  Silkweed,  belong  to  the  Asclepiadacese. 

The  Gum  Elastic  Tree  (Tabernaemomontana  elas- 
tica)  is  a  climbing  shrub,  with  acuminate,  oval  leaves 
and  small,  greenish  flowers.  It  mounts  to  the  top  of 
the  highest  trees.  Native  of  Sumatra,  where  the  inhab- 
itants use  it  as  gum  elastic.  They  make  incisions  into 
the  trunk,  and  the  milky  sap  which  follows,  is  collected. 
This  fluid,  dried  in  the  sun,  thickens,  and  forms  a  kind 
of-  gum  elastic,  much  inferior,  however,  to  the  Caout- 
chouc, but  used  as  such  by  the  natives.  Seldom  em- 
ployed in  Europe. 

FORTY-FOURTH  FAMILY. — GENTIANACE^;. — (Class  5, 
L.) — Pentandria,  are  mostly  plants  with  five  free  stamens. 

The  Yellow  Gentian  (Gentiana  lutea)  has  oval, 
strongly  ribbed  leaves  ;  flowers  yellow,  rotate  ;  arranged 
in  verticils  ;  grows  profusely  on  high  hills,  or  dry  wooded 
places.  Root  thick  and  fleshy,  has  an  unpleasant  odor ; 
tastes,  at  first,  sweetish,  afterwards  intolerably  bitter; 
used  as  a  tonic  in  medicine.  Found  in  Europe  and 
America.  2£ . 

Buck  Bean  (Menyanthes  trifoliata),  Tourn.      Leaves 


302  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

on  long,  round  foot-stalks,  trifoliate  or  three-lobed ; 
leaflets  obovate.  Grows  in  swamps  and  margins  -of 
ponds.  Root  about  as  thick  as  a  finger,  branching; 
descending  deep  into  the  earth.  Flowers  pale  red.  very 
ornamental,  arranged  in  pyramidal  clusters.  Contains  a 
bitter  principle,  considered  actively  medicinal.  It . 

FORTY-FIFTH  FAMILY. — COXVOLVULACE^E.  —  BIND- 
WEEDS.— These  are  plants  which  climb  to  a  considerable 
height  by  twining  their  elastic  stems  around  those  of 
other  plants.  (Class  5,  L.) 

Small  Bind  Weed  (Convolvulus  arvensia).  Stem 
contains  a  milky  juice  ;  leaves  arrow-shaped  ;  found  in 
fields,  vineyards,  etc.,  as  weeds.  Flowers  white,  marked 
with  red  ;  the  whole  plant  is  filled  with  an  acrid,  milky 
sap;  not  poisonous  and  readily  eaten  by  cattle.  O- 

Convolvulus  Batatas — Sweet  Potato  (Batatas  edu- 
lis.  Choisy).  Stem  creeping ;  leaves  heart-shaped, 
lanceolate,  five-lobed;  acuminate.  Native  of  both  In- 
dies ;  planted  everywhere  in  the  south  for  the  sake  of 
the  tuberous  roots,  which  furnish  nutritive  and  palatable 
food ;  somewhat  resemble  the  common  potato ;  do  not 
contain  so  much  farina,  but  a  great  deal  of  sugar ;  many 
prefer  it  to  the  Irish  Potato  (Tuberus  solanum).  Eas- 
ily cultivated  in  sandy  soils  (New  Jersey),  where  they 
yield  a  profitable  crop.*  They  are  planted  in  hills  or 
rows,  like  corn,  or  the  common  potato,  by  dividing  the 
tubers,  leaving  an  eye  or  bud  in  each  piece ;  each  of 
these  contain  a  germ  of  the  plant,  and  send  forth  a  root. 
The  leaves  and  tender  shoots  are  also  eaten.  Cultivated 

*  Supposed  to  be  the  same  species  of  roots  as  those  which  Colum- 
bus's  sailors  were  treated  with  by  the  inhabitants  of  Cuba.  They 
described  them  as  being  very  sweet,  and,  when  boiled,  tasting  like 
chestnuts. — Tr. 


PLANTS.  303 

in  all  countries  lying  within  the  south  temperate  zone, 
Southern  Europe,  etc.  The  Jalap  of  the  shops  is  the 
product  of  the  root  of  the  Exogonum  purga  of  Mexico, 
Scammony  of  Convol.  Scammonia,  native  of  the  Levant. 
The  drastic  qualities  of  both  depend  upon  the  presence 
of  a  peculiar  resin.  2f . 

FORTY-SIXTH  FAMILY.  —  BORRAGINACEJS.  —  Plants 
or  shrubs,  seldom  trees — with  single  flowers.  (Class  5, 
Linn.) 

The  Forget-me-not  (Myosotis  palustris),  Germ.,  has 
a  simple,  angular  stem — obtuse,  lanceolate  leaves- — and 
handsome  blue  flowers,  arranged  in  hanging  clusters. 
This  beautiful  plant  delights  in  damp  grounds,  or  by 
brook  sides.  Remains  fresh  a  long  time  after  being 
pulled.  Much  prized  in  Europe,  where  it  is  sent  to 
friends  as  a  token  of  remembrance.  Scorpion  Grass 
(M.  crepitosa),  Schultz  (a  laxa),  De  Cand.,  is  often  mis- 
taken for  it.  The  latter  grows  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States.  2£. 

Heliotrope  (Heliotropium  peruvianum).  A  herbaceous 
rugous  shrub.  Is  a  native  of  Peru,  but,  on  account  of  its 
elegance,  cultivated  as  a  green-house  plant.  Leaves 
rough,  lanceolate,  longer  than  wide.  Flowers  erect, 
small,  but  numerous,  very  fragrant,  white,  or-  tinged 
with  purple,  b . 

Borage  (Borago  officinalis).  Stem  branching  and 
hairy;  leaves  oblong-oval,  rough,  stalked,  and  deeply 
incised ;  flowers  light-blue.  Native  of  Palestine,  but 
now  growing  wild  in  Europe.  Leaves  and  stalks  very 
succulent,  and  tasting  like  cucumbers,  is  eaten  as  sal- 
ad. O. 

Lungwort,  Hounds-tongue.  Wild  Comfrey,  eto.. 
United  States,  belong  also  to  the  Borinacese  family. 


304  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

FORTY-SEVENTH  FAMILY.— SOLANACE^:. — (Class  5, 
Linn.) — Plants  herbaceous  or  shrubby;  many  of  them 
poisonous. 

Woody  Night  Shade— Bitter  Sweet  (Solanum  dul- 
camara). Stem  shrubby  and  climbing;  leaves  heart- 
shaped,  ovate ;  flowers  blue,  in  cymous  clusters ;  berries 
oval  and  red.  Found  about  hedges,  low  grounds,  and 
banks  of  rivulets  in  Europe,  also  from  Arkansas  to  New 
England.  The  root  being  chewed,  gives  at  first  a  sensa- 
tion of  bitterness,  then  of  sweetness.  Leaves  and  twigs 
have  been  used  medicinally.  *? . 

Horse  Nettle  (Sol.  Carolinense),  Black  Niyht  Shade 
(Sol.  nigrum  Virginicum),  belong  to  this  family. 

The  Jerusalem  Cherry  or  Coral  Tree  (Solanum 
pseudo  capsicum)  is  shrub-like ;  leaves  lanceolate  ;  bears 
white  flowers.  Kept  in  parlors  or  conservatories  for  its 
beauty,  as  its  cherry-like,,  coral-red  fruit  is  tasteless,  and 
although  harmless,  of  no  possible  use.  Native  of  Ma- 
deira. ^ . 

The  Common  Potato  (Solanum  tuberosuni).  Stem 
herbaceous,  somewhat  creeping;  leaves  interruptedly 
pinnate;  flowers  white  or  bluish;  fruit  globular,  small, 
greenish-yellow ;  base  and  roots  producing  fleshy  tubers 
containing  farina.  A  native  of  Peru,  the  potato  was 
unknown  before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
when  it  was  sent  to  England  by  Sir  Francis  Drake. 
Although  he  wrote  a  full  description  of  the  valuable 
qualities  of  this  useful  esculent,  he  forgot  to  remark  that 
the  tuberous  portions  of  the  root  only  were  to  be  eaten. 
Potatoes  were  accordingly  planted  in  the  royal  gardens, 
and  grew  well ;  the  small,  berry-like  fruit  ripened,  and 
the  head  cook  of  Queen  Elizabeth  anticipated  what  great 
honor  he  should  receive  in  the  preparation  of  a  dish  of 


PLANTS.  305 

potatoes,  when  it  should  appear  on-  the  royal  table.  But 
no  art  availed  to  make  Potato  Apples  palatable.  Great 
odium  fell  on  Sir  Francis  Drake  for  the  deception  he  had 
practiced,  and  orders  were  given  for  the  worthless  plants 
to  be  plucked  up  by  the  roots  and  thrown  away.  The 
gardener  thought  best  to  burn  them  as  rubbish,  and  did 
so ;  but  as  they  were  burning  he  was  attracted  by  the 
savory  odor  from  the  pile.  Taking  up  one  of  the  tubers 
he  found  himself  constrained  to  taste  it.  Eureka  !  The 
treasure  was  found,  and  from  that  time  it  gradually  came 
into  use.  Although  at  present  the  potato  constitutes  a 
large  portion  of  the  food  of  civilized  man,  it  was,  for  the 
first  two  hundred  years  after  Elizabeth's  reign  culti- 
vated only  for  feeding  swine ;  for  great  prejudice  ex- 
isted against  the  plant  being  used  as  food  for  man.  This, 
however,  was  gradually  removed ;  the  potato  is  now  in 
general  use  everywhere,  and  a  favorite  article  of  diet;  is 
prepared  in  various  ways  as  farina,  sago,  etc.  ;  also  dis- 
tilled into  brandy  in  Russia.  O- 

The  Egg  Plant  (Solanum  insanum),  sometimes  called 
Mad  Apple,  is  a  prickly  shrub ;  leaves  woolly  and  oval ; 
flowers  pendulous,  bluish-red;  fruit  oval,  egg-shaped, 
purple  or  white ;  sometimes  very  large.  The  white 
never  larger  than  a  hen's  egg,  and  cultivated  for  orna- 
ment only.  The  purple  egg-plant  is  used  as  an 
esculent,  and  much  esteemed.  Native  of  Asia  and  Af- 
rica. Q. 

Red  or  Cayenne  Pepper  (Capsicum  annuum),  Tourne. 
Stem  herbaceous,  angular,  branching  above ;  leaves  ovate, 
acuminate,  and  on  long  petioles  or  foot-stalks.  Flowers 
stand  single  ;  fruit  or  berries  red,  pendulous.  Native  of 
India  and  South  America ;  cultivated  in  gardens  both  in 
southern  Europe  and  United  States.  There  are  at  least 


306  -  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

twenty  varieties,  all  differing  in  size,  color,  and  taste. 
Seeds  small,  yellow,  and  flat.  The  whole  plant  is  per- 
vaded by  a  heating,  acrid  principle — considered  Avhole- 
some.  The  best  known  are  the  Long  or  Cayenne  ;  the 
Squash  Pepper,  best  for  pickling :  the  Cherry  Pepper, 
used  for  pepper  sauce  and  in  seasoning  meats,  and  the 
Sweet  Spanish  Pepper,  use  as  a  salad.  O.  Others  of 
the  Solonacese  will  be  found  under  the  head  of  poisonous 
plants,  Nightshades,  etc. 

FORTY-EIGHTH  FAMILY. — SCROPHULARIACE^E.— FIG- 
WORTS. — Chiefly  herbs  with  flowers,  solitary,  corymbif- 
erous,  often  arranged  pyramid-like. 

Lion's  Mouth,  Great  Snap  Dragon  (Antirrhinum 
cymbalaria),  stem  creeping;  leaves  heart-shaped,  five- 
lobed  ;  flowers  red  or  pink ;  the  lower  lip  white,  mouth 
yellow,  with  a  prominence  resembling  a  palate  at  base. 
This  pretty  flower  is  found  in  Europe,  climbing  over  old 
walls,  which  it  covers  with  its  rank  luxuriance.  O-  The 
purple  Lion's-mouth  is  cultivated  everywhere  as  an  orna- 
ment to  gardens. 

The  Common  Mullein,  Beard  Plant  (Verbascum 
thapsus),  stem  three  to  six  feet  high,  stout,  simple ; 
leaves  lanceolate,  pendulous,  and  very  woolly ;  flowers 
grow  on  a  cylindrical  spike,  something  like  ears  of  corn, 
small  and  bright  yellow.  Grows  in  waste  grounds,  rub- 
bish heaps,  etc.  Considered  useful ;  flowers  prepared  in 
an  infusion  which  is  given  for  a  cough.  O.  Toad  Flax 
(Linaria),  also  called  Butter  and  Eggs,  belongs  to  this 
family.  Very  abundant  in  Pennsylvania. 

SUB-FAMILY  BIGXOXIACEJS. — Woody  vines  or  trees, 
the  first  of  which  race  is 

The  Calabash  Tree  (Crescentia  cujete),  in  size  and 
general  appearance  resembles  the  quince  tree ;  leaves 


PLANTS.  307 

shining  green  ;  flowers  yellow,  furrowed,  and  ventricous. 
Fruit  of  various  sizes,  according  to  the  different  kinds  of 
tree ;  in  form  resembling  gourds,  but  in  structure  alto- 
gether different.  The  rind  or  outer  covering  is  tough 
and  woody, -clothed  with  a  green  skin,  within  this  is  a 
fleshy  pulp,  enclosing  many  seeds,  but  being  very  bitter, 
can  not  be  eaten,  although  it  is  sometimes  used  in  pul- 
monary cases.  The  rind  is  the  only  part  employed  for 
any  purpose,  but  the  natives  of  the  West  Indies  and 
South  America  consider  it  to  be  of  infinite  use,  and  make 
a  variety  of  domestic  utensils  from  it.  One  large  cala- 
bash with  the  neck  cut  off  serves  to  hold  water,  another 
of  a  smaller  size,  cut  in  half,  is  used  as  a  dish,  in  which 
beans  and  hominy  are  served ;  the  fruit  of  another  variety 
or  the  necks  of  the  larger,  form  drinking  cups  ;  other 
segments  are  employed  as  spoons,  cupping-glasses,  pow- 
der-horns, etc.  The  Indians  are  careful  to  plant  the 
different  species  of  the  race,  and  very  well  understand 
how  to  paint  and  ornament  them.  They  manifest  con- 
siderable skill  in  cutting  various  figures  on  the  rind 
while  it  is  still  green,  and  some  of  these  ornamented 
calabashes  are  very  beautiful.  Others,  adorned  with 
feathers,  and  each  provided  with  a  movable  piece  of 
wood  which  turns  like  a  handle,  are  partly  filled  with 
pebbles  and  used  in  their  religious  ceremonies.  Much 
attention  is  paid  to  the  noise  of  the  rattling  pebbles 
within,  being  used  as  a  species  of  divination  to  predict 
the  future.  Vessels  made  from  the  cabalash  will  not 
bear  the  action  of  heat.  h. 

The  Sesamum  or  Oily  Seed  (Sesamum  indicum)  ; 
stem  erect,  four  feet  in  height ;  leaves  lanceolate,  with 
petioles ;  thimble-shaped  flowers  ;  seeds  whitish-yellow, 
in  angular  two-celled  capsules.  Native  of  East  Indies. 


308  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Seeds  yield  an  excellent  oil,  which  will  keep  several 
years  without  injury.  Used  in  cookery  for  all  the  pur- 
poses of  sweet  oil ;  also  for  burning,  and  as  ingredient  in 
salves,  etc.  Five  pounds  of  seeds  yield  one  of  oil.  An- 
other species  with  black  seeds  is  inferior.  O. 

The  Trumpet  Flower  (Tecoma  radicans),  Juss.,  and 
Catalpa  (C.  Cordifolia),  Jaum.,  natives  of  United  States, 
and  Tecoma  C/rinensis,  native  of  China  and  Japan,  are 
also  found  among  the  Bignoniaceae. 

The  Lianas,  found  abundantly  in  all  tropical  coun- 
tries and  everywhere  met  with  in  the  primitive  forests, 
claim  their  place  here.  Flinging  themselves  in  wonder- 
ful and  beautiful  reaches  from  tree  to  tree,  they  unite 
those  forest  monarchs  with  each  other,  their  green  bands 
varying  in  size  from  a  slender  filament  up  to  a  cable 
rope.  Most  of  them  are  parasitic,  and  rooting  themselves 
on  the  top  of  the  tree,  travel  downwards  and  unite  it 
with  the  earth,  often,  however,  distorting  their  stems  into 
the  most  grotesque  convolutions  on  the  way,  sometimes 
assuming  the  shape  of  a  gigantic  cork-screw,  at  others 
the  form  of  steps,  frequently  called  Monkey-stairs. 
Many  are  prized  for  their  beautiful  flowers,  others  for 
their  medicinal  properties  or  excellent  wood ;  a  few, 
when  an  incision  is  made  in  the  bark,  pour  forth  cool, 
clear  water,  proving  a  real  cordial  to  the  wanderer  in 
those  torrid  regions.  Others,  too,  have  been  described 
as  resembling  the  trees  of  the  enchanted  forest,  sung  by 
Tasso  in  Jerusalem  Delivered,  which,  on  being  cut, 
yields  a  bloody  sap ;  this,  sprinkled  upon  the  clothes  of 
the  intruder,  leaves  a  stain  which  never  can  be  washed 
out;  the  Indians  use  it  for  painting  themselves.  The 
lianas,  twining  thus  from  tree  to  tree  form  a  perfect 
tangle,  and  growing  large  and  strong,  become  so  tough 


PLANTS.  309 

that  it  requires  some  labor  to  hew  them  down.  Never- 
theless— as  nothing  is  without  its  use — they  are  indis- 
pensably necessary  to  the  natives  in  building  their  huts, 
as,  having  no  nails,  they  serve  in  place  of  this  article  to 
bind  the  beams  and  posts  together,  and  prove  as  strong 
as  mortises  or  tenons. 

FORTY-NINTH  FAMILY. — LABIATE. — (Class  2  and 
14,  L.) — This  well  known  family  of  plants  have  mostly 
labiate  of  two-lipped  flowers,  by  which  they  are  distin- 
guished ;  partly  herbaceous,  partly  shrubby. 

The  Sage  (Salvia  officinalis)  has  an  upright,  branch- 
ing stem,  growing  in  bunches ;  leaves  oval,  somewhat 
wrinkled  or  petiolate  ;  the  whole  plant  woolly  and  gray- 
ish-green ;  flowers  bluish-purple,  and  arranged  in  whorls 
forming  a  spike.  Native  in  the  south  of  Europe,  but 
planted  in  gardens,  where  it  grows  into  a  shrub.  Has  a 
balsamic  odor,  somewhat  like  that  of  camphor  ;  taste  bit- 
ter, aromatic,  and  slightly  acrid.  Very  useful  in  domes- 
tic economy  and  medicine,  h. 

The  Rosemary  (Rosmarinus  oflicinalis),  an  erect, 
evergreen  shrub,  stem  much  branched,  younger  branches 
angular  and  downy.  Leaves  opposite,  obtuse ;  under 
surface  whitish  and  downy ;  flowers  in  compact,  terminal 
heads,  axillary,  of  a  bright  blue  color,  having,  like  the 
leaves,  a  strong  aromatic  fragrance  like  camphor ;  yields 
by  distillation  a  large  proportion  of  fragrant  oil.  Native 
of  southern  Europe,  where  it  grows  wild  among  the  rocks 
along  the  sea-coast ;  planted  in  gardens,  is  used  as  sea- 
soning in  cookery  and  also  medicinally,  h. 

Peppermint  (Mentha  piperita)  is  herbaceous  ;  leaves 
smooth,  ovate,  lanceolate,  serrate,  petiolate  ;  flowers 
whitish,  bordered  with  red.  arranged  in  terminal  spikes. 
Grows  wild  in  England,  cultivated  in  gardens  elsewhere, 


310  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

from  which,  however,  it  often  strays  abroad.  Thrives 
best  in  wet  places.  Has  a  strong,  pleasant,  aromatic 
odor,  a  penetrating  taste,  pungent  to  the  tongue  at  first, 
afterwards  followed  by  a  sensation  of  coldness.  Essence 
of  peppermint  is  well  known  as  a  medicine  ;  acting  as  a 
cordial  in  flatulency,  nausea,  etc.  *? . 

Spearmint  (M.  Viridis,  M.  tenuis  Michx.),  Water 
Horehoimd  (L.  Sinuatus),  Dittany  (Cunila,  L.),  Wild 
Basil  (Clinopodium)  are  all  nearly  related  to  the  genus 
Mentha. 

Summer  Savory  (Saturegahortensis).  Stem  erect, 
much  branched ;  leaves  numerous,  small,  and  narrow  ; 
under  surface  spotted ;  flowers,  purplish-pink,  stand  in 
axillary  cymes.  Grows  wild  in  the  south  of  Europe ; 
further  north  and  in  the  United  States  planted  in  gar- 
dens as  a  culinary  aromatic.  In  Germany  eaten  as  a 
seasoning  to  beans,  h. 

Hyssop  (Hysopus  officinalis).  Stem  erect,  branching, 
rough,  and  hairy ;  leaves  lanceolate,  acute,  punctate ; 
flowers  whitish  or  pale  pink,  arranged  in  terminal  spikes. 
A  handsome  plant,  found  growing  wild  on  dry  hills  in 
the  south  of  Europe  ;  cultivated  in  gardens  for  its 
reputed  medicinal  properties ;  used  as  a  popular  febri- 
fuge. The  odor  of  the  hyssop  (Ezob  of  the  Jews)  is 
strongly  aromatic  and  agreeable ;  taste  bitter  and  cam- 
phor-like. 2£ . 

Catnip  or  Catmint  (Nepeta  Cataria)  has  an  erect, 
woolly  stalk  ;  leaves  oval,  heart-shaped,  crenate,  or 
tooth-like  ;  grows  everywhere  on  rubbish-heaps  or  about 
old  buildings  and  fences.  Sometimes  found  in  gardens, 
as  it  is  believed  to  be  possessed  of  medicinal  properties. 
About  three  feet  high  ;  taste  aromatic-bitter.  Cats  are 
very  fond  of  the  plant,  and  devour  it  with  the  greatest 


PLANTS.  311 

avidity,  rolling  over  it  in  seeming  intoxication,  as  they 
do  with  Valerian.  It . 

Lavender  (Lavandula  spica),  stem  erect  and  branch- 
ing :  leaves  small,  tapering  to  the  base  without  petioles, 
crowding  on  the  branches,  which  are  slender  and  clothed 
with  whitish  down;  flowers,  bluish-lilac,  stand  in  spikes. 
Grows  wild  in  southern  Europe,  where  it  delights  on 
sunny  hills ;  cultivated  as  a  garden  plant  in  the  north 
and  United  States  on  account  of  its  delightful  aromatic 
fragrance  and  herbaceous  beauty ;  taste  a  pleasant,  spicy 
bitter ;  is  used  as  a  stimulant  and  tonic,  and  the  oil,  ex- 
tracted by  distillation,  enters  into  many  compositions  in 
medicine  and  perfumery.  2£ . 

Sweet  Marjoram  (Origanum  majorana),  stem  upright, 
branching  from  the  ground ;  leaves  obovate,  obtuse,  peti- 
olate,  and,  like  the  stem,  downy ;  flowers  small  and 
whitish-pink,  cluster  in  short  spikes  on  the  end  of  the 
branches.  Native  of  the  south  of  Europe — Portugal 
and  in  the  East ;  often  cultivated  in  gardens.  It  has  a 
pleasant  aromatic  flavor  and  is  employed  in  various  ways 
as  a  seasoning.  O- 

Garden  Thyme  (Thymus  serpyllum).  Stem  creep- 
ing at  base ;  branches  small  and  erect ;  leaves  petiolate, 
oval,  obtuse ;  flowers  purplish-pink,  arranged  in  tufts  on 
terminal  spikes.  Stem  and  leaves  downy.  The  wild 
thyme  grows  on  hills  and  uncultivated  places  in  Europe, 
and  is  highly  attractive  to  bees.  This  well  known  herb 
has  a  penetrating,  aromatic  odor,  pleasantly  acrid  taste,  is 
found  in  every  well-ordered  kitchen-garden.  Used  for 
culinary  and  medicinal  purposes ;  considered  almost  a 
specific  in  rheumatism,  contusions,  etc.  2£. 

Balm  (Melissa  ofiicinalis).  A  plant  with  an  erect, 
branching  stem,  rough  above ;  leaves  elliptical,  ovate, 


312  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

petiolate,  tapering  to  a  point  with  whitish  down  beneath. 
Flowers  ocheous  white;  calyx  hairy,  arranged  in  ter- 
minal whorls  or  heads.  Grows  in  south  of  Europe  on 
mountainous  hills,  hut  is  also  cultivated  in  gardens  every- 
where in  Europe  and  the  United  States ;  known  hy  the 
name  of  Citron  Plant.  Odor  very  fragant  and  citron- 
like  ;  taste  pleasantly  aromatic,  slightly  pungent,  and 
hitter.  Considered  medicinal,  and  made  into  tea,  is  use- 
ful as  a  stomachic  and  in  nervous  complaints.  Also  used 
as  seasoning  in  cookery.  2£. 

Ground  Ivy — Ale  Hoof — Gill  over  the  Ground — 
(Glechoma  hederacea),  a  creeping  plant,  leaves  reni- 
form,  kidney-shaped,  crenate ;  flowers  axillary,  three  to- 
gether, bluish-purple.  Grows  everywhere  by  road-sides, 
hedges,  etc.  Very  troublesome  in  gardens.  Odor 
slightly  aromatic;  taste,  acerb  and  bitter.  Considered 
medicinal,  and  formerly  used  in  the  preparation  of  Hip- 
pocras  or  medicated  wine.  H . 

The  Dead  Nettle — Henbit  (Lamium  album).  Leaves 
roundish,  petiolate,  and  toothed;  flowers  purplish  or 
white,  campanulate;  stand  in  axillary  whorls.  Has  a 
sweetish,  slimy  taste,  and  faint  honey-like  odor.  Found 
growing  in  fence-corners,  hedges,  etc.,  also  in  cultivated 
grounds.  Sometimes  used  medicinally.  2£. 

FIFTIETH  FAMILY. — PRIMULACE^E. — (Class  5,  L.) 

Primrose  (Primula  veris).  Leaves  radical,  oval, 
rugate,  serrate;  flowers  yellow,  pendulous,  hanging  in 
tufts  or  tassels ;  have  five  bright,  orange  spots  on  the 
throat.  Found  in  grass  plats,  hedges,  dry  ridges,  etc. 
Flowers  used  in  Europe  as  tea.  Odor  faint  and  un- 
pleasant. 1C . 

Scarlet  Pimpurnel  or  Red  duckweed  (Anagallis 
arvensis).  Stem  upright,  acutely  angled  ;  leaves  ovate, 


PLANTS.  313 

pointed,  black  dotted  beneath ;  flowers  standing  singly, 
orange-red  or  brick-dust  color;  grows  in  fallow  fields 
and  uncultivated  grounds ;  is  without  odor ;  taste  at  first 
mawkish,  afterwards  bitter ;  injurious  to  cattle  if  eaten 
of  largely.  It  has  been  remarked  in  Europe,  that  if 
the  flowers  are  expanded  in  the  morning  the  day  will  be 
fine,  if  shut,  the  contrary ;  hence  it  has  been  named  the 
Shepherd's  Weatherglass.  Q. 

Next  to  this  family  come  the  Plantacese,  represented 
only  by  the  genus  Plantago. 

Common  Plantain — Rib  Grass  (Plantago  major). 
Leaves  ovate,  smooth,  with  from  five  to  nine  strong 
ribs ;  flowers  in  cylindrical  spikes ;  grows  everywhere  as 
weeds.  Seeds  are  useful  for  feeding  birds.  O- 

English  Plantain — Rib  or  Ripple  Grass  (Plantago 
lanceolata).  Stalk  grooved,  angled,  and  slender  ;  leaves 
lanceolate  and  toothed ;  spike  short,  thick,  almost  egg- 
shaped;  flowers  brownish-white.  Leaves  contain  an 
acrid  sap,  therefore  considered  good  for  dressing  wounds, 
blisters,  etc.,  a  fact  which  seems  to  have  been  known  in 
the  da}-s  of  Shakspeara  (Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  i., 
scene  2).  Also  used  as  domestic  medicine.  O- 

The  Sow  Bread  (Cyclamen  europseum).  Radical 
portion  of  stalk  fleshy ;  leaves  heart-shaped  on  long  foot- 
stalks ;  flowers  rose-colored,  dark- throated,  and  very  fra- 
grant. This  beautiful  plant  grows  wild  in  the  shady 
woods  of  the  southern  Alps,  and  constitutes  their  chief 
ornament.  The  acrid,  fleshy  root  is  poisonous,  unless 
roasted,  after  which  it  can  be  eaten  with  safety. 
14 


314  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


FOURTH  SUB-CLASS. 

APETAL.EA.  Flowerless  plants.  Flowers  inclosed  in  a 
sheath.  Mostly  coarse,  weed-like  herbs;  leaves  alter- 
nate ;  flowers  inconspicuous ;  corolla  none,  the  floral  en- 
velopes being  mostly  in  single  series  (calyx),  or  some- 
times wanting  altogether. 

FIFTY-FIRST  FAMILY. — CHENOPODIA. — (Linn.) 

The  Common  Beet  (Beta  vulgaris)  has  a  reddish, 
angular  stem ;  lower  leaves  ovate,  oblong,  wavy ;  upper 
ones  lanceolate.  The  Sugar  Beet  grows  wild  every- 
where in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea ; 
farther  north  cultivated  in  gardens  for  the  purpose  of 
making  sugar,  and  also  as  an  esculent.  The  Germans 
prepare  both  root  and  leaves  in  various  ways,  as  pickles, 
salads,  etc. ;  they  call  it  Red  Root.  The  White  Beet, 
Scarcity,  or  Mangel  Wurtzel  (B.  cicle)  is  cultivated  as 
food  for  cattle.  The  Burgundy  Beet  (Runkle  rube)  is 
much  valued  as  a  table  vegetable.  Both  are  nearly 
related  to  the  Sugar  Beet:  the  root  of  which  is  yellow- 
ish. The  beet  is  said  to  yield  sugar  equal  to  that  of  the 
cane ;  but  as  long  as  the  Sugar  Maple  and  the  Sugar 
Cane  exists  to  supply  us  with  that  important  article,  it 
is  not  probable  that  the  Beet  will  be  much  relied  on. 
The  beet  sugar  is  said  to  rank  next  to  that  of  the  West 
India.  $ . 

Spinnage  (Spinacea  oleracea).  Leaves  arrow-shaped ; 
root  resembles  that  of  the  white  beet;  flowers  greenish. 
Brought  by  the  Arabs  into  Spain,  it  is  now  in  general 
use  as  a  favorite  vegetable.  $  . 

Samphire  or  Salt  Wort  (Salsola  kali).  Stalk  about 
one  or  two  feet  high,  diffuse;  leaves  small,  spiky;  flow- 


PLANTS.  315 

ers,  green,  standing  singly,  close  to  the  stem.  Grows 
on  downs  lying  along  the  sea-coasts ;  strays  sometimes 
a  short  distance  inland,  in  good  sandy  soils.  Found 
from  New  England  to  Georgia.  Used,  with  other  vari- 
eties of  the  species,  in  the  preparation  of  Soda,  and  cul- 
tivated largely  in  Spain,  for  this  sole  purpose.  It  is  first 
burned  into  ashes,  from  which  the  soda  is  extracted. 

FIFTY-SECOND  FAMILY. — POLYGONE.E. — Herhs,  rare- 
ly shrubs,  with  alternate  leaves.  (Class  6,  L.) 

Buckwheat  (Polygonum  fagopyrum).  Stem  erect 
and  smooth ;  leaves  heart-shaped,  with  distinct  rounded 
lobes.  Native  of  Middle  Asia,  but  naturalized  in 
Northern  Europe  and  United  States.  Grows  well  in 
poor  and  sandy  soils,  or  rough,  hilly  districts.  The 
seed  makes  good  grits  or  groats  ;  the  farinaceous  albu- 
men affords  a  delicious  article  of  food  in  Buckwheat 
Cakes,  which,  when  skillfully  made,  very  few  refuse. 
The  white,  glandular  flowers  are  a  favorite  resort  of 
the  honey-bees,  and  afford  a  rich  reward  for  their  labors, 
although  the  honey  is  of  inferior  quality.  It  is  a  pecu- 
lar  belief  that  white  hogs  can  not  eat  buckwheat  without 
injury;  said  to  create  a  species  of  madness,  while  the 
black  swine  feed  on  it  with  impunity.  O. 

Sour  or  Curled  Sorrel  Dock  (Rumex  acetosa).  Rad- 
ical leaves,  heart-shaped,  on  long  petioles ;  flowers  in, 
crowded  verticillate  fascicles ;  color  slightly  red.  Stem 
two  or  three  feet  high ;  grows  in  meadows  or  gardens. 
The  radical  leaves  of  this  plant  are  often  used  as  a  pot- 
herb, early  greens,  or  salad,  both  in  Germany  and  our 
own  country.  Root  and  seed  disagreeable  and  acerb.  O- 

Rhubarb  (Rheum  australe).  A  shrubby  plant  about 
five  feet  in  height;  leaves  roundish  and  heart-shaped. 
Native  of  China  and  Tartary.  Flowers  reddish ;  root 


316  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

fleshy,  branching,  and  yellow,  furnishes  the  well-known 
medicine  of  the  shops.  Very  medicinal  as  brought  from 
its  native  land,  but,  transplanted  into  Europe  and  else- 
where, deteriorates  so  much  as  to  lose  all  its  officinal 
qualities.  It  has  a  powerful,  disagreeably  aromatic 
odor;  taste,  nauseating  and  bitter.  As  the  Chinese 
rhubarb  is  supposed  to  lose  much  of  its  medicinal  qual- 
ity by  being  transported  by  sea,  that  brought  by  the 
overland  route  is  greatly  preferable.  The  Monk's 
Rhubarb  (Rheum  rhaponticum)  is  the  Pie  Plant  of 
the  garden,  so  commonly  cultivated  for  its  acid  and  es- 
culent leaf-stalks.  O- 

.FIFTY-THIRD  FAMILY.  —  LAURACEJE.  —  AROMATIC 
TREES  OR  SHRUBS.  The  tropical  plants  of  this  order, 
some  of  which  contain  the  aromatic  principle  in  their 
leaves,  others  in  the  bark,  are  interesting. 

The  Bay  Laurel  (Laurus  nobilis).  Leaves  oblong, 
lanceolate,  leathery,  veined  and  evergreen.  Flowers 
hanging  in  umbelliferous  tufts,  yellowish-white ;  fruit  or 
berries  dark  green,  and  egg-shaped.  Found  in  all  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  is 
only  a  shrub ;  farther  south  it  grows  into  a  tree  thirty 
feet  in  height.  Leaves  have  an  aromatic  odor  and  spicy 
taste;  contains  a  bitter  principle,  which,  extracted,  is 
considered  a  good  stomachic.  The  berries  yield  a 
species  of  camphorated  oil,  which  is  used  in  medicine. 
The  bay-laurel,  famed  from  the  earliest  days  of  mythology, 
was  dedicated  to  Apollo ;  conqueror  and  poets  received  a 
crown  made  of  the  leaves,  which  was  considered  the  high- 
est mark  of  distinction  that  could  be  bestowed.  $  . 

The  Cinnamon  Tree  (Laurus  cinnamomum).  Branch- 
es and  leaf-stalks  are  naked  and  angular ;  leaves  ovate, 
oblong,  gradually  tapering  to  a  point ;  flowers  yellowish- 


PLANTS.  *         31 

white  and  silky,  come  forth  in  panicles  Found  in  Cey- 
lon, where  the  groves  of  cinnamon  trees  are  said  to  be  a 
mile  in  length  ;  also  in  Martinique  and  Mauritius,  whence 
they  have  been  transplanted  into  South  America ;  the 
latter  is  said  to  produce  the  best  variety  of  this  popular 
spice.  Grows  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet ;  bark  is  gray 
on  the  outside,  yellowish-red  within ;  fruit,  berries  of  an 
oblong  shape.  The  odor  of  the  cinnamon  is  uncommonly 
strong,  and  highly  aromatic  ;  taste,  pleasantly  spicy,  but 
not  so  pungent  as  that  of  the  Chinese  variety.  The  tree 
which  produces  the  latter  is  nearly  related  to  the  cinna- 
mon tree  of  Ceylon,  but  more  spreading,  and  the  bark 
coarser  and  more  biting,  is  less  esteemed,  and  conse- 
quently much  cheaper,  h. 

The  Camphor  Tree  (Laurus  camphora).  A  very 
ornamental  tree,  resembling  the  linden ;  grows  in  China, 
Japan,  and  Cochin  China.  The  leaves  ovate-oblong,  in- 
terruptedly pinnate  and  B-ribbed,  are  green  and  reddish ; 
flowers  small  and  white,  are  arranged  in  panicles  or 
tufts,  each  composed  of  two  dozen ;  fruit,  dark-red  ber- 
ries, about  the  size  of  peas.  Every  part  of  the  tree, 
especially  the.  root,  smells  and  tastes  of  camphor.  The 
well  known  gum  of  the. shops  is  obtained,  first,  by  boil- 
ing the  leaves,  etc.,  afterwards  by  distillation,  and  lastly 
evaporation.  $  .* 

The  next  in  order  is  Myristacete. 

The  Nutmeg  Tree  (Myristica  moschata),  plate  27,  fig. 

*  fever  Bush,  Spice  Wood,  Laurus  Benzoin,  Sassafras  (S.  officin 
ale),  belong  to  the  Lauracese.  All  the  species  are,  throughout,  per- 
vaded by  a  warm  and  stimulant  aromatic  oil.  Cassia  bark  is  obtained 
from  Cinnamonum  Aromatica  of  China.  Persea  Gratissima,  a  tree 
of  West  Indies,  yields  a  delicious  fruit  called  the  Avocoda  Pear 
—  Wood.—Tr 


318  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

3.  Leaves  on  short  petioles,  oblong,  obtusely  rounded ; 
flowers  small,  pale  yellow,  resembling  May-flowers,  and 
of  both  sexes.  Fruit,  a  berry-like  plum,  yellow,  and 
about  the  size  of  an  apricot.  Ripens  six  months  after 
the  time  of  budding ;  the  outer  covering  or  hull  opens 
like  that  of  our  hickory  nuts,  and  a  dark-colored  seed  or 
nut  drops  out ;  it  is  enveloped  in  a  thin,  reddish -colored 
skin,  which  is  called  Mace.  The  kernel  contained  in  the 
nut  is  the  genuine  and  -well-known  nutmeg.  The  nut- 
meg abounds  in  a  warm,  stimulant,  and  volatile  oil,  and 
is,  together  with  mace,  much  used  in  cooking,  h. 

FIFTY-FOURTH  FAMILY.  —  THYMELACE^E.  —  DAPH- 
NIADS. 

The  Mezereum — Spurge  Laurel  (Daphne  mezereum), 
a  European  plant,  is  a  small  shrub;  leaves  lanceolate, 
entire,  in  terminal  tufts ;  flowers  handsome  rose-color ; 
some  varieties  white ;  of  powerful,  pleasant,  but  stupefy- 
ing odor;  fruit,  berries  about  the  size  of  peas,  bright 
red.  Grows  in  damp,  shady  forests ;  blooms  about  the 
end  of  February.  The  whole  plant,  the  bark  especially, 
is  very  acrid.  The  berries  are  poisonous,  and  even  the 
smell  of  the  flowers  creates  a  burning  sensation  in  the 
nostrils. 

Dirca  Leather  Wood  (D.  palustris)  is  the  only 
American  variety.  Flowers  small,  yellow,  and  funnel- 
shaped,  appear  befgre  the  leaves.  The  tough  bark  is 
acrid,  and  even  blistering;  is  used  for  ropes,  cordage, 
baskets,  etc.  The  reticulated  fibers  may  be  separated 
and  made  into  a  kind  of  lace,  as  in  the  Lagelfa  or  Lace 
Bark  of  Jamaica.  2£ . 

FIFTY-FIFTH  FAMILY. — ARISTOLOCHIACE^;. — (Class 
10,  Linn.) 

The  Common  Birthwort  (Aristolochus  clematitis)  13 


PLANTS.  319 

an  erect,  smooth,  climbing,  herbaceous  shrub ;  found 
everywhere  in  warm  countries ;  grows  in  hedges,  vine- 
yards, etc. ;  leaves  on  very  long  foot-stalks,  broad,  ovate. 
Flowers  small,  in  sessile  clusters.  Native  of  Europe ; 
odor  unpleasant ;  taste  bitter.  It. 

The  Dutchman's  Pipe  (Aristolochia  sipho).  Stem 
woolly,  twining,  and  shrubby ;  leaves  ample,  heart- 
shaped,  and  pointed ;  flowers  solitary ;  the  tube  long  and 
bent  at  nearly  a  right  angle  in  the  form  of  a  siphon  or 
tobacco-pipe,  and  of  a  dull  brown  color.  An  American 
plant,  and  highly  ornamental,  much  valued  in  cultivation 
*for  arbors.  2£ . 

The  Wild  Ginger  (Asarum  europseum)  has  a  stem 
which  is  hardly  visible,  the  true  stem  being  the  root, 
runs  under  ground.  Leaves  petiolate,  reniform,  in  pairs ; 
flower  pale  green ;  root  has  a  pungent  aromatic  smell ; 
creates  nausea  and  vomiting ;  was  formerly  employed — 
being  mixed  in  snuff!  It . 

Virginia  Snake  Root  (Aristolachia  serpentaria),  a 
well  known  and  very  valuable  aromatic  stimulant,  belongs 
here.  To  the  Aristolachia  succeeds 

The  PASSIFLORACE^;. — Passionworts,  which,  like  the 
foregoing,  are  woody,  climbing  shrubs  ;  very  beautiful ; 
calyx  colored,  deeply  five-parted ;  the  throat,  with  a  com- 
plex filamentous  crown.  Fruit  of  various  sizes ;  form  a 
pulpy  berry,  containing  small  seeds,  not  unlike  a  goose- 
berry. Native  of  South  America ;  cultivated  elsewhere 
as  an  ornamental  plant.  The  fruit  seldom  ripens  except 
in  the  South,  where  it  is  called  Markusa ;  is  cooling  and 
pleasant-tasted.  The  usual  way  of  eating  it  is  with  wine 
and  sugar. 

FIFTY-SIXTH  FAMILY. — EUPHORBIACE^:. — SPURGE- 
WORTS  (German,  Wolf's  milk)  are  trees  or  shrubs  often 


320  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

abounding  in  an  acrid  milk.  Many  of  them  are  poison- 
ous, and  many  furnish  esculent  roots  and  fruit. 

The  Box  (Buxus  sempervirens)  has  oval,  evergreen 
leaves.  In  the  south  grows  into  a  tree  twelve  feet  high. 
In  the  north  of  Europe  and  United  States  it  is  only  a 
shrub.  Leaves  of  latter  small,  numer-obovate  ;  flowers 
yellowish,  terminal.  Many  varieties.  The  wood  of  the 
Tree  Box  is  very  hard  and  used  for  inlaying  fine  cabinet 
work  and  wind  instruments.  ]?. 

The  Common  Euphorbia,  Wolf's  Milk  (Euphorbia 
officinarum),  stalk  woody  below,  upper  part  fleshy,  many- 
angled,  and  prickly;  leaves  wanting,  so  that  it  has  the 
appearance  of  a  great  cactus.  The  stalk  contains  a  great 
quantity  of  milk  sap,  which  flows  partly  spontaneously, 
but  always  very  plentifully  from  an  incision  made  through 
the  bark,  and  when  exposed  to  the  sun  becomes  hard  and 
resinous.  This  sap  is  very  acrid  ;  at  first  almost  taste- 
less, it  gradually  becomes  intolerably  pungent ;  is  poison- 
ous and  intensely  cathartic ;  also  used  for  producing  vesi- 
cation.  According  to  the  Koran,  this  tree  grows  in  the 
infernal  regions,  and  the  unhappy  beings  condemned  to 
perdition  are  obliged  to  eat  it.*  h. 

The  Common  Spurge,  Male  Tree  (Euphorbia  esula) 
is  a  small  plant,  found  growing  by  road-sides :  leaves 
spiky,  cuticular ;  flowers  yellow,  standing  in  rayed  tufts. 
The  stem  is  very  succulent,  and  on  being  broken,  pours 
forth  a  milky  juice,  said  to  bo  a  specific  for  curing 
warts.  2f . 

The  Gum  Elastic  Tree  or  Hcvea  Guianensis  (Si- 
phonia  elastica)  of  Persoon,  is  a  tall  tree,  measuring 
sixty  feet  in  height ;  leaves  ovate,  gray,  petiolate,  in- 

*  The  violently  drastic  Croton  Oil  (Oil  of  Tiglium),  the  Indian  spe- 
cies, belong  to  this  genus. — Tr. 


PLANTS.  321 

verted  ;  flowers  small  and  yellowish.  Fruit  as  large  as 
an  apple,  contains  seeds  Avhich  are  eatable.  Native  of 
Peru  and  Guiana.  The  milky  juice  which  flows  from 
incisions  being  made  in  the  bark  of  the  tree,  becomes 
hard  and  brown  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  is  the  well 
known  Caoutchouc  or  India  rubber,  so  useful  at  the  pre- 
sent time  in  the  manufacture  of  overshoes,  water-proof 
coats,  etc.  h. 

Palma  Cltristi,  Castor  Oil  Bean  (Ricinus  commu- 
nis)  is  a  shrub  with  an  erect  branching  stem.  Leaves 
shield-shaped  on  long  petioles.  Flowers  bloom  in  tufts ; 
bears  a  prickly  nut  (caps)  containing  seed.  Native  of 
East  Indies,  but  cultivated  in  southern  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica; a  rich  oil  is  expressed  from  the  seeds,  which,  at  first 
almost  tasteless,  but  afterwards  found  disagreeable  and 
acrid,  is  the  well  known  Castor  Oil  of  the  shops.  One 
of  its  popular  names  is  the  Wonder  Tree,  because  it  is 
believed  to  be  of  the  same  species  with  that  which,  as 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  grew  in  one  night  into  a 
tree,  under  whose  shade  the  Prophet  Jonah  sat  when  sent 
to  preach  to  the  people  of  Nineveh.  In  the  south  2£,  in 
Germany  and  the  north.  G- 

The  Mandicc,  (Jatropha  or  Janipha  manihot),  leaves 
on  under  surface  grayish- green,  five  to  six-lobed,  on  long 
petioles ;  blooms  in  clustering  racemes ;  stem  crooked, 
about  six  feet  in  height,  bears  seed  like  the  Palma 
Christi.  Native  of  South  America,  where  it  is  culti- 
vated largely.  The  starchy  accumulations  in  the  rhizoma 
or  underground  portion  of  the  stem,  which  is  fleshy  and 
of  the  thickness  of  an  arm,  forms  the  articles  used  for  food. 
The  starch  thus  obtained  is  the  Cassava,  which,  when  gra- 
nulated, forms  the  Tapioca  of  commerce.  Nevertheless, 
although  the  root  furnishes  this  nutritious  farina,  it  also 
14* 


322  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

contains  a  milky  sap,  which,  acrid  and  deleterious,  is 
deadly  poison  to  men  and  animals.  Yet,  it  also  is  made 
useful,  for,  containing  a  mucilaginous  sugar,  which,  by- 
evaporation  is  made  into  syrup  and  perfectly  innocuous, 
it  is  used  as  an  accompaniment  with  meat  and  rice.  Cas- 
sava is  made  by  grating  the  root,  pressing  out  the  juice 
and  drying  it  in  the  same  manner  as  pursued  with  starch. 
By  evaporation  the  poisonous  portion  is  volatilized  and  the 
root  is  eatable ;  and  the  farinaceous  portion  is  made  into 
Cassava  bread,  which  is  like  meal  or  wheaten  cakes,  and 
when  fresh  and  slightly  toasted,  is  well-tasted  and  nutri- 
tive. The  native  Indians  use  it  largely,  and  prepare,  by 
chewing  the  root  and  spitting  it  out  into  a  vessel  of  water, 
where  it  undergoes  fermentation,  an  intoxicating  liquor, 
called  Tapana,  which  they  use  largely  at  their  festivals. 
The  plant  is  a  profitable  article  of  trade ;  the  root,  after 
the  juice  is  expressed  and  exposed  to  a  due  degree  of 
heat,  is  eaten  largely,  and  no  danger  feared  from  its 
use.  O . 

The  Manchineal  Tree  (Hippomane  mancinella),  leaves 
ovate,  acuminate,  dentate ;  height  about  forty  feet ;  trunk 
strong,  resembles  a  pear  tree.  Fruit,  in  color,  form,  and 
odor  is  so  much  like  small  apples,  that  any  one  is  liable 
to  be  deceived  by  it ;  when  ripe  falls  from  the  tree,  and, 
instead  of  decaying  on  the  ground,  dries  up.  The  whole 
tree  contains  a  milky  juice,  which  is  a  virulent  .poison — 
the  fruit  particularly  so — it  is  said  to  destroy  persons 
who  sleep  under  its  shade,  and  a  drop  of  the  juice  falling 
on  the  hand  or  any  portion  of  the  skin,  produces  an  in- 
stantaneous blister.  Crabs  are  used  as  a  remedy,  and  as 
the  manchineal  grows  on  the  sea-coast  in  the  West  Indies, 
these  Crustacea  are  easily  procured.  The  wood,  beauti- 


PLANTS.  323 

ful  brown,  marbled  with  white,  is  much  used  in  ornamen- 
tal cabinet  work. 

FIFTY-SEVENTH  FAMILY. — Ficus. — Trees  or  shrubs 
with  milky  juice  ;  fruit  fleshy  and  eatable  ;  leaves  large. 
Natives  of  tropical  regions  ;  none  in  North  America. — 
(Class  23,  L.) 

The  Common  Fig  (Ficus  carica),  leaves  heart-shaped, 
three  to  five-lobed,  lobes  obtuse,  scabrous  (rough)  above, 
pubescent  (downy)  beneath.  Fruit  is  nothing  more  than 
the  fleshy  calyx  or  receptacle,  pear-shaped,  containing 
within  its  luscious  pulp  numerous  small  seeds  of  both 
sexes.  Known  from  the  earliest  ages,  and  growing  wild 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  Caria,  Asia;  although  now  cultivated  in  all 
tropical  climes,  often  growing  into  a  tree  twenty  feet 
high.  Figs  in  their  fresh  state  somewhat  resemble  large 
pears ;  color  dull  red  or  yellow ;  those  of  the  South  are 
the  best,  because,  in  their  unripe  state  being  punctured 
by  the  gall- wasp,  they  mature  earlier.  ^Fhe  best  figs 
come  from  Smyrna.  This  fruit,  so  delicious  and  well 
known,  is  used  fresh  as  an  article  of  food ;  dried,  a  favor- 
ite desert,  and  also  as  medicine.  }t. 

The  wide-spreading  Banyan  (Ficus  religiosa)  of  India 
claims  a  place  here. 

The  Caoutchouc  Fig  (Ficus  elastica)  is  one  of  a  num- 
erous genera  yielding  caoutchouc,  contains  a  milky  juice, 
which,  being  dried,  hardens  into  the  article  called  Gum 
Elastic.  A  native  of  Nepal.  Leaves  ovate,  oblong, 
petiolate,  smooth,  and  glossy ;  is  a  very  handsome  tree, 
and  is  kept  in  conservatories  as  an  ornament,  f?. 

The  Black  Mulberry  (Morus  nigra).  Leaves  heart- 
shaped,  ovate,  or  lobed,  obtuse,  unequally  serrate  ;  flow- 
ers fertile ;  spikes  oval ;  fruit  resembles  that  of  the 


324  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

blackberry,  dark-red,  and  of  an  acrid  aromatic  flavor. 
Native  of  Persia,  but  long  since  naturalized  in  Europe 
and  America.  *?. 

The  White  Mulberry  (Morus  alba)  is  distinguished 
from  the  former  by  its  leaves  which  are  oblique,  un- 
equally serrate,  either  undivided  or  lobed ;  fruit  whitish 
berry.  Native  of  China;  cultivated  for  sake  of  its  leaves 
as  the  food  of  silk-worms,  h. 

The  Bread-fruit  Tree  (Artocarpus  incisa).  Leaves 
oblong,  much  cleft,  downy  beneath  ;  the  flowers  aggre- 
gated into  fleshy  heads ;  the  fleshy  receptacle,  like  the 
fig,  forming  a  compound  baccate  fruit.  The  common 
bread-fruit  is  distinguished  from  the  Otaheite ;  both,  how- 
ever, attain  to  the  size  of  a  child's  head ;  the  first  con- 
tains a  multitude  of  seeds  or  kernels,  about  as  large  as 
chestnuts,  which,  boiled  and  roasted  are  eatable,  but  by 
no  means  palatable,  having  a  disagreeable  earthy  taste  ; 
the  latter  have  a  yellowish  farinaceous  pulp,  which  tastes 
much  like  good  potatoes.  The  first  is  propagated  by 
planting  the  seeds,  the  latter  by  scions.  Both  bear  fruit 
the  whole  year,  but  that  they  are  so  prolific  that  three 
trees  are  sufficient  to  afford  ample  food  for  one  man,  as 
travelers  have  related,  is  one  of  the  exaggerations  which 
those  who  go  abroad  frequently  indulge  in.  Compara- 
tively, their  product  is  small,  and  it  would  require  thirty 
trees,  rather  than  three,  to  furnish  an  annual  supply  for 
one  person.  The  common  bread-fruit  tree  is  planted 
every  where  in  tropical  countries;  the  Otaheite  but  rarely, 
on  account  of  its  bearing  less  fruit.  T^.  A  relative  race, 
the  celebrated  Cow  Tree  (Palo  de  Vaco.  Don.,  Galaclo- 
dendron  utile),  found  in  South  America,  yields  a  copi- 
ous supply  of  rich  milk,  which  is  pleasant  to  the  taste, 
and  can  be  drank  with  safety.  The  tree  which  yields 


PLANTS.  8^5 

the  resin  called  Gutta  Pereba,  the  yellow  dye-wood  called 
Fustic  (Maclura  tinctoria,  Don.),  and  the  reputed  deadly 
Upas  (Antiaris  toxicaria,  Leschen),  most  likely  deserve 
to  be  ranked  with  this  family. 
FIFTY-EIGHTH  FAMILY. — URTICACEJE. — (Class  22,  L.) 
Hemp  (Canabis  sativa)  has  a  stiff,  upright  stalk, 
rough  and  crenate ;  leaves  petiolate,  palmately  five  to 
seven  foliate.  Leaflets  lanceolate,  serrate.  Male  and 
female  flowers  easily  distinguished ;  the  first  is  termed 
fimble  hemp  and  the  latter  seed-bearing.  Flowers  small, 
green,  solitary,  and  axillary  in  the  barren  plants,  spiked 
in  the  fertile  ones.  Introduced  from  Persia  and  India, 
is  cultivated  in  many  countries.  Seeds  inodorous,  but 
have  a  sweetish,  oily,  somewhat  nauseating  taste.  The 
green  plant,  however,  has  a  strong  smell,  which  produces 
stupor,  or  has  an  intoxicating  influence,  wherefore  it  is 
considered  very  unwholesome  to  sleep  in  a  hemp  field  or 
in  any  place  where  the  odor  is  inhaled  to  any  extent.  It 
is  a  well  known  fact  that  children  have  been  killed  by  it. 
The  fibrous  portion  of  the  stalk,  treated  like  that  of  flax, 
is  spun  into  yarn  for  coarse  cloths,  or  made  into  cordage. 
Hemp  is  treated  as  follows :  after  being  pulled  it  is  laid  in 
water  and  left  to  a  partial  decay,  so  that  the  fibers  may 
be  separated  from  the  resin  which  confines  them ;  then 
transferred  to  clean  water ;  next  spread  out  in  a  grass 
field,  and  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  and  dew. 
After  this  it  is  heated  or  dried  in  a  kiln,  until  the  fibers 
begin  to  separate  from  the  woody  portion  of  the  stem, 
which  has  become  decayed  and  brittle.  A  succeeding 
operation  is  to  break  it,  which  is  done  with  an  instru- 
ment  made  of  wood,  and  adapted  to  the  purpose ;  the 
tough  fibers  are  now  relieved  from  the  greater  portion 
^f  the  wood,  and  the  hemp  subjected  to  the  further  pro- 


326  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

cess  of  scutching,  which  is  performed  by  hanging  it  over 
an  upright  board  called  a  scutching -block,  and  beat 
it  with  a  bat.  Last  of  all  it  is  drawn  through  a  large 
iron  comb  called  a  heck  el.  and  afterwards  spun  into  yarn. 
The  male  plants — pulled  earlier  than  the  female,  which 
are  left  standing  that  the  seed  may  ripen — yield  the  finest 
quality  of  hemp.  Seeds  furnish  good  food  for  birds,  and 
are  also  used  medicinally.* 

The  Hop  (Humulus  lupulus).  Stem  twisted,  angu- 
lar, and  always  twining  with  the  sun ;  leaves  very  rough, 
three  to  six  lobed,  heart-shaped.  Found  wild  in  hedges, 
etc.,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  and,  as  is  well  known, 
extensively  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  fertile  aments, 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer.  Flowers  of  both  sexes 
found  on  the  same  vine.  Flowers  of  the  fertile  plants  in 
aments  with  large  scales,  and  covered  with  yellow  farina, 
called  hop-meal.  Odor  peculiar,  strongly  balsamic,  pro- 
duces sleepiness;  taste,  bitter  aromatic.  Used  largely 
in  all  liquors  prepared  from  malt ;  also  considered  to 
possess  medicinal  qualities,  and  recommended  in  dys- 
pepsia and  diseases  of  the  kidneys.  2£. 

Common  Nettle  (Urtica  urens).  Leaves  ovate,  ellip- 
tical, five-ribbed,  deeply  and  acutely  serrate,  armed  with 
stinging  hairs.  Flowers  in  axillary,  branching,  hispid 
spikes ;  the  stinging  or  burning  sensation  caused  by  con- 
tact with  the  leaves  of  this  plant,  and  dreaded  by  all 
who  approach  it,  is  supposed  to  be  produced  by  an  acrid 
sap  which  exudes  through  the  capillary  hairs,  rather 
than  by  the  pricking  of  the  hairs  themselves.  Spirits 
of  hartshorn  is  the  best  remedy ;  where  this  is  not  at 

hand,  fresh  earth  can  be  used.     O- 

t 

*  Not  so  largely  cultivated  in  the  United  States  as  formerly. — Tr. 


PLANTS.  327 

Stinging  Nettle  (Urtica  dioica).  Leaves  cordate, 
acuminate,  deeply  serrate.  Flowers  pistillate  or  stami- 
nate;  grows,  like  the  former,  everywhere,  in  rubbish- 
heaps,  waste  places,  etc. ;  a  regular  nuisance  in  United 
States,  although  in  some  localities  in  Europe  it  is  treated 
as  hemp,  and  manufactured  into  a  fine  fabric  called  Net- 
tle doth.  H. 

The  Eltn  (Ulmus  campestris)  of  Europe  is  a  hand- 
some tree,  fifty  to  eighty  feet  high ;  flowers  bell-shaped, 
greenish,  dark  red,  appear  in  March,  before  the  leaves; 
grows  everywhere  in  Middle  Europe ;  wood  hard  and 
tough,  is  much  used. by  coach-makers.* 

FIFTY-NINTH  FAMILY. — CUPULIFER^G. — MASTWORTS. 
— Oaks  which  are  the  largest  and  handsomest  trees  found 
in  the  European  forests. 

The  Cojnmon  Oak  (Quercus  ruber).  Leaves  on  long 
petioles,  smooth,  obtusely  sinuate,  lobes  obtuse.  Flow- 
ers, sterile  or  fertile ;  latter  bloom  in  greenish  catkins. 
The  acorns  grow  in  groups  of  three  and  four  together, 
an  inch  long,  in  deep,  warty  cups.  The  oak  attains  to  a 
height  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  (in  the  forests  of 
Germany),  and  a  diameter  of  six  feet,  standing  firmly  for 
more  than  a  century.  Wood  very  valuable  for  ship- 
building, or  in  plows  or  mill-work.  The  bark  is  em- 


*  The  Wliite  or  Weeping  Elm  (Ulmus  araericana)  and  Tawny  Elm, 
Slippery  or  Red  Elm  (Ulmus  fulva)  are  peculiar  to  America.  The 
first,  sixty  to  eighty  feet  high,  branches  long,  spreading,  often  rather 
drooping,  is  a  noble  shade  tree — used  for  that  purpose  in  New  Eng- 
land. Grows  in  low  grounds,  along  streams ;  not  very  common.  The 
latter,  more  frequent,  found  in  rich  low  grounds,  fence-rows,  etc.  The 
inner  bark  of  this  species  is  so  charged  with  mucilage,  that  it  has  been 
added  to  the  Materia  Medica  of  our  Shops.  Of  smaller  size,  not  so 
proper  for  a  shade  tree  as  the  foregoing.  Classed  in  Flora  Ceslrica, 
DarL,  as  Ulmacese.— Tr. 


328  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

ployed  in  tanning,  and  the  bitter,  astringent  principle  it 
contains  is  used  for  medicine  in  many  diseases.  Acorns, 
roasted,  are  used  by  many  of  the  peasantry  of  Europe  as 
a  substitute  for  coffee.  Also  useful  as  mast  for  swine. 
A  relative  species  is  found  in  Persia,  Lesser  Asia,  etc., 
viz.,  the  Gall  Oak  (Quercus  infectoria),  the  leaf-stalks 
of  which,  being  pierced  by  the  gallwasp,  the  sap,  exud- 
ing through  the  puncture,  forms  the  ink  or  oak-galls, 
well  known  in  commerce;  the  Cork  Oak  (Quercus 
suber),  whose  bark  is  well  known  as  cork- wood,  grows 
in  Spain  and  Italy,  and  the  Holm  or  Stone  Oak,  with 
its  evergreen  leaves  and  edible  fruit,  which  tastes  like 
filberts,  are  all  members  of  the  Cupuliferas  family.  h. 

The  next  is 

The  Walnut  Tree  (Juglans  regia).  Leaves  alter- 
nate, pinnate,  nine-paired ;  leaflets  ovate-oblong ;  fruit,  a 
dry  drupe,  with  a  wooden  or  bony  nutshell,  containing  a 
large,  four-lobed,  oily  kernel.  Originally  a  native  of 
Persia ;  now  grows  everywhere  in  Europe  and  America 
within  the  temperate  zone.  The  wood  of  this  noble  tree. 
Black  Walnut,  dense  and  fine-grained,  rivals  the  cele- 
brated mahogany  in  the  manufacture  of  furniture.  The 
seeds,  or  ripe  fruit,  are  eatable,  and  generally  esteemed  ; 
they  yield  a  considerable  quantity  of  oil.  The  unripe 
fruit  of  the  English  and  White  Walnut  make  an  ex- 
cellent pickle,  and  the  large  stem-root,  beautifully  veined, 
serves  for  inlaying  or  fine  carving.  T> 

The  Hazel  (Corylus  avellana)  is  a  large  shrub  or 
small  tree ;  leaves  roundisli-ovate ;  stem  six  to  ten  feet 
high,  branching  in  erect  twigs  from  base.  Flowers  stam- 
inate,  pistillate,  separate ;  the  latter  arranged  in  catkins. 
Furnishes  the  pleasant  fruit  esteemed  as  hazel-nuts  or  fil- 


PLANTS.  329 

berts.     Wood  is  good  for  burning,  or  made  into  walking- 
canes.0 

Witch  Hazel  (C.  hamamelis),  the  young,  forked 
twigs  of  which  constitute  the  celebrated  divining  rod 
used  to  discover  the  localities  of  precious  metals  and  sub- 
terranean fountains,  the  Dwarfed  Filbert  (C.  rostrata), 
and  Wild  Hazel  Nut  (C.  americana)  are  relative  genera. 
The  European  filbert  is  more  oblong,  ripens  earlier, 
clothed  in  a  red  envelope  and  kernel  of  richer  taste,  is 
perhaps  the  best  of  the  species. 

The  Beech  (Fagus  sylvaticas).  Leaves  breadly  ovate, 
elliptic,  glossy,  slightly  toothed.  A  very  handsome 
tree ;  branches  thick  and  spreading,  form  a  leafy  crown 
at  the  top;  trunk  straight  and  round,  often  measures 
one  hundred  feet  in  height.  Flowers  both  staminate  and 
pistillate  ;  the  latter,  the  female,  bloom  in  catkins.  Fruit 
— beechnuts — furnish  excellent  mast  for  hogs ;  also  yield 
excellent  oil;  wood  hard  and  white,  makes  good  five- 
wood.  The  American  Chestnut  (Fagus  castanea),  nuts 
smaller  than  the  Spanish  chestnut,  but  sweeter  than  the 
European  variety,  and  the  Dwarf  Chestnut  (C.  Purni- 
la),  Chinquapin,  found  in  the  Middle  States,  are  rela- 
tive genera.  |7. 

SIXTIETH  FAMILY. — SALIACIACE^E. — WILLOWORTS. — 
A  large  number  of  genera  belong  to  this  tribe,  which  are 
trees  or  shrubs,  mostly  of  slender  form,  sometimes  with 
thick  trunks.  We  can,  however,  notice  but  a  few. 

The  Bedford  or  Brittle  Willow  (Salix  fragilis). 
Leaves  long,  slightly  toothed,  acute  at  each  end : 

*  Originally  imported  into  Italy  from  Pontus,  the  fruit  was  kuowu 
among  the  Romans  as  Nux  Pontica,  afterwards  changed  into  NU.X 
Avellana,  from  the  Avella  near  Naples,  where  they  had  been  most 
successfully  propagated. — Tr. 


330  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

branches  with  greenish-brown  bark ;  twigs  remarkably 
brittle.  Grows  into  a  tall  tree  beside  water-courses ; 
flowers  pistillate  or  staminate,  bloom  in  catkins.  Bark 
of  the  twigs  bitter  and  astringent,  and,  with  the  leaves, 
used  in  Europe  instead  of  the  Chinese  herb  as  tea.  h. 

Weeping  or  Drooping  Willow  (Salix  babylonica). 
Leaves  small,  linear,  lanceolate,  usually  sharply  serrate, 
dentate ;  much  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  shade-tree. 
Branches  long,  slender,  perpendicularly  pendulous,  as  if 
drooping  from  grief,  very  naturally  indicate  the  English 
name  of  weeping  willow,  and,  regarded  as  an  emblem  of 
mourning,  is  generally  planted  beside  graves.  Tournc- 
fort  terms  it  Salix  orientalis  •  Linnaeus,  however,  gave 
it  the  name  which  it  now  bears,  in' allusion  to  the  137th 
Psalm,  "By  the  rivers  of  Babylon,  there  we  sat  down; 
we  wept  when  we  remembered  Zion.  We  hanged  our 
harps  upon  the  willows,  in  the  midst  thereof.''  Flowers 
all  pistillate.  The  Common  Osier  (Salix  viminalis,  L.) 
is  highly  prized  for  basket-work.  Swamp  Willows, 
etc.,  are  varieties  of  the  genera.  All  thrive  best  in  damp 
places.  J? . 

The  Black  Poplar  (Populus  nigra).  Branches  erect, 
leaves  triangular,  acuminate,  serrate ;  is  a  tolerably  largo 
tree.  Native  of  Europe,  where  it  grows  in  damp  woods ; 
flowers  all  pistillate,  blooming  in  catkins.  Wood  not 
much  esteemed,  h. 

The  Lombardy  Poplar  (Populus  pyramidata).  Leaves 
three-cornered,  serrate ;  stem  sixty  feet  high ;  branches 
erect,  forming  a  pyramid ;  planted  in  streets  of  towns 
and  elsewhere,  as  ornamental.  There  are  several  rela- 
tive species,  among  which  are  the  Abele  or  Silver-leaf 
Poplar  (P.  alba),  with  leaves  dark  green  and  smooth 
above,  very  white,  downy  beneath ;  the  Quzkiny  Aspen 


PLANTS.  331 

of  Europe  (P.  tremula),  and  the  western  Cotton  Tree 
(P.  angulata)  (P.  tremuloides) . 

The  White  Poplar — American  aspen.  Leaves  dark 
green  on  petioles,  two  or  three  inches  long,  and  laterally 
compressed,  so  that  they  can  scarcely  remain  at  rest  in 
any  position,  and  are  thrown  into  excessive  agitation  by 
the  slightest  breeze.  \i. 

SIXTY-FIRST  FAMILY. — BETULACE.E. — BIRCHWORTS. 
— The  first  of  this  race  is 

The  White  Birch  (Betula  alba).  Leaves  triangular, 
deltoid,  very  taper-pointed  and  serrate ;  distinguished  by 
their  beautiful  green  color.  A  beautiful  tree,  with 
chalky-white  bark,  easily  separable  into  sheets  or  layers. 
If  the  trunk  is  bored  into  in  the  spring-time,  a  very  sweet 
sap  is  obtained.  Grows  in  America  from  Pennsylvania 
to  Maine,  but  not  so  abundantly  as  in  Northern  Europe 
or  Asia,  where  it  forms  great  forests.  Flowers  unsight- 
ly ;  both  sterile  and  fertile  arranged  in  drooping  catkins ; 
the  wood  valuable  for  fuel.  ^ . 

The  Erie  or  Alder  (Alnus  glutinosa).  Leaves  sub- 
plicate,  ovate,  glutinous ;  bark  brownish-gray ;  stem  or 
trunk  about  fifty  feet  high  ;  grows  in  swampy  grounds 
where  no  other  tree  will  thrive.  Flowers,  male  and 
female,  in  pendulous  catkins.  Bark,  very  hard,  is  good 
for  firewood.  The  wood,  often  handsomely  veined,  is 
excellent  for  wagon-making,  mill-posts,  and  woodwork 
of  dams  ;  as,  being  harder  even  than  that  of  the  locust, 
it  does  not  decay  in  the  water.  Not  good  for  burning, 
and  makes  very  poor  charcoal.  Bark  of  branches  used 
by  tanners  and  dyers,  h. 

The  Plane  Tree — Butlomvood — Sycamore  (Plata- 
nus  occidentalis),  a  native  of  North  America,  but  often 
planted,  as  an  ornamental  tree,  in  Europe.  The  largest, 


332  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

but  not  loftiest  tree  of  the  American  forest,  the  trunk 
often  measures  from  forty  to  fifty  feet  in  circumference, 
or  more  than  thirteen  feet  in  diameter.  Leaves  five-cor- 
nered, very  large ;  flowers  in  globular  aments  or  balls, 
which  hang  upon  the  tree  on  long  pedicels  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  winter.  The  bark  is  detached  yearly  from 
the  trunk  in  great  scales. 

SIXTY-SECOND  FAMILY. — ABIETIXE^;. — Pixus. — This 
genus  is  distinguished  by  their  leaves  which  are  acerose 
(needle-shaped),  in  fascicles  (little  bunches  or  bundles) 
of  two  or  five,  and  evergreen.  The  tree  itself  contains 
a  great  deal  of  turpentine ;  flowers  both  staminate  and 
pistillate.  Grows  in  all  the  northern  countries  through- 
out the  world;  delights  in  dry  soils,  therefore  mostly 
found  on  barren  hills,  mountains,  or  sandy  bottoms. 
Staminate  aments  scattered  or  clustered  near  the  ends  of 
of  the  branchlets.  Fertile  aments  lateral  or  terminal 
somewhat  clustered  or  solitary.  Most  of  them  are  tall 
and  slender  trees,  others  low  and  scrubby. 

The  Pine  or  Scotch  Fir  (Pinus  sylvestris)  has  pointed 
oval,  overhanging  cones,  with  obtuse  scales ;  leaves  stand 
in  pairs,  are  rigid,  prickly,  and  bluish-green.  Is  a  beau- 
tiful tree,  forming  whole  pine  forests  in  the  north  and 
middle  of  Europe.  Bark  reddish-brown,  peals  off  in 
large  pieces  from  the  trunk.  The  wood  is  used  for 
building  and  burning,  in  the  last  respect  of  little  im- 
portance ;  the  wood  of  the  root,  being  very  resinous,  is 
known  and  employed  as  torch-wood.  On  an  incision 
being  made  into  the  trunk,  a  thick,  yellowish,  gummy 
substance  flows  from  the  opening,  which  is  the  Common 
Turpentine ;  this  resin  afterwards  is  distilled,  and  well 
known  as  Spirits  of  Turpentine.  The  residuum  of  this 
distillation  is  Rosin.  Tar  and  pitch  are  both  made  by 


PLANTS.  333 

burning  pine  wood  in  pits  properly  arranged.  That 
which  flows  first  from  the  melted  turpentine  is  tar ;  the 
latter,  darker  and  thicker,  is  pitch,  and  the  portion  left 
from  both  is  subjected  to  a  severer  burning,  and  made 
into  lamp-black,  used  in  the  preparation  of  printer's 
ink,  etc.  h. 

The  Pine  (Pinus  pinea).  One  of  the  handsomest  of 
the  Abictinese,  reaches  to  a  height  of  fifty  feet,  spreading 
at  the  top  so  that  its  crown  resembles  an  umbrella.  Bears 
a  large,  thick  cone  containing  seeds  which  are  eatable, 
and  taste  like  hazel-nuts.  Native  of  Southern  Europe, 
and  particularly  of  Italy,  'p . 

The  Siberian  Stone  Pine  or  Yew-leaved  Fir  (Pinus 
cembra).  Spikes  or  needles  three-cornered,  standing  in 
in  fascicles,  four  or  five,  cones  erect;  young  twigs  or 
branches  rusty  red  and  hairy.  Seeds  unwinged  and  nut- 
shaped,  called  Pine-nuts,  are  eatable.  Found  in  the 
Eastern  Alps  and  Carpathian  Mountains;  wood  very 
beautifully  grained  and  sweet  smelling,  is  used  by  the 
Alpine  peasants  for  carving  into  ornamental  toys,  etc.  % . 

Weymouth  or  White  Pine  (Pinus  strobus).  Leaves 
long,  fine,  triangular,  spiky ;  strobiles  (cones)  cylindric- 
oblong,  nodding ;  seeds  long-winged.  This  beautiful  and 
useful  tree,  with  its  smooth,  resinous  bark,  and  regularly 
transverse  branches,  is  a  native  of  North  America,  and 
most  valuable  for  the  excellence  of  the  lumber  it  affords 
for  building  materials.  Cultivated  in  Europe  as  an  orna- 
mental tree  only.  ^2. 

The  White  Larch  (Pinus  larix).  Leaves  an  inch  in 
length,  limber  and  obtuse,  arranged  in  beautiful,  pencil- 
like  tufts,  fall  off  in  winter.  Branches  arching  and 
bending,  have  a  most  graceful  appearance.  Grows  mostly 
on  the  mountains  of  Europe,  but  now  becoming  quite 


334  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

frequent  as  an  ornament  to  grounds.  Often  transplanted 
abroad  on  account  of  the  excellence  of  its  wood  for  build- 
ing purposes ;  very  enduring,  it  is  altogether  suitable  for 
mill  or  other  water  works.  It  also  affords  the  Venice 
turpentine,  and  a  substance  called  Manna  of  Briamon. 
One  native  species  (L.  americana,  M.)  found  on  our 
mountains,  h. 

The  Cedar  (Pinus  cedrus)  is  very  large ;  grows  to  a 
great  height ;  a  remarkably  handsome  tree,  with  wide- 
spreading  branches,  and  spiky  leaves,  an  inch  long.  The 
cedar  has  been  famed  since  the  earliest  times  ;  wood  of  a 
reddish  color,  with  a  most  pleasant  odor.  The  beams  in 
Solomon's  temple  are  described  in  the  Bible  as  being 
made  of  this  wood.  Native  of  Syria,  it  nevertheless 
bears  transplanting  into  Northern  Europe ;  for  instance, 
the  large  cedar,  celebrated  for  its  immense  size,  now 
growing  in  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Paris,  was  a  small 
plant  brought  by  Tournefort  in  1734  from  the  East. 
Of  the  cedars  of  Lebanon  it  is  said  that  there  are  not 
more  than  a  dozen  remaining.  The  wood,  only  used  at 
present  for  burning  as  incense,  is  very  scarce  and  costly. 
The  tree  known  in  South  America  as  cedar,  the  wood 
of  which  is  used  in  making  cigar  boxes,  lead  pencils,  etc., 
does  not  belong  to  this  family,  having  rather  leaves  than 
spikes. 

The  Red  or  Norway  Pine  (Pinus  abies),  leaves  dark 
evergreen,  in  pairs,  channeled,  four-cornered,  stand  col- 
lected towards  the  ends  of  the  branches ;  cones  ovoid 
conic  (rhombic  four-sided),  pendulous  ;  scales  armed  to- 
wards the  end ;  seeds  long- winged.  Considered  one  of 
the  best  forest  trees  in  Europe  and  America.  Its  slender 
trunk,  in  youth  covered  with  a  smooth  reddish  bark, 
which,  when  the  tree  is  old,  bccomos  rough  and  fissured, 


PLANTS.  335 

reaches,  in  the  space  of  eighty  or  one  hundred  years,  a 
height  of  many  feet.  This  pine  affords  a  fine-grained 
resinous  timber  of  much  durability  and  strength  ;  affords 
turpentine  equally  with  the  fir,  and  on  account  of  its 
handsome  pyramidal  form  is  often  cultivated  as  an  orna- 
ment. 

The  Noble  Pine — Balsam  Fir  (Pinus  picea).  Leaves 
sub-secund  (on  each  side  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb)  emar- 
ginate ;  flat,  obtuse,  with  two  white  stripes  on  the  under 
side.  Cones  erect,  cylindrical;  scales  and  bracts  obo- 
vate,  tipped  with  an  abrupt  slender  point ;  scales  and 
seeds  falling  from  the  axis  at  maturity.  The  bark  of  the 
trunk  is  whitish,  scales  off  in  thin  flakes  when  the  tree 
is  old.  Called  in  America,  Canada  Balsam  or  Balm  of 
Gilead  Fir,  in  Europe,  Silver  Fir.  This  beautiful  tree, 
which  in  Europe  reaches  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet,  abounds  in  Germany ;  found  mostly  in  the 
mountain  regions,  where  dark  and  extensive  forests  are 
composed  of  it,  as,  for  instance,  the  Black  Forest.  The 
wood,  tougher  and  more  elastic  than  that  of  the  common 
pine,  is  preferable  for  building  purposes — not  so  good 
for  fuel.  The  resin  it  exudes  is  known  in  Germany  as 
Strasburg  Turpentine,  in  United  States,  Canada  Balsam. 

The  Yew  Tree  (Taxus  baccata),  Tourne.  Leaves 
evergreen,  small,  flat ;  fruit  red  and  berry-like,  without 
stalks.  This  handsome  tree  grows  wild  in  southern  Eu- 
rope, but  is  often  transplanted  in  the  north.  Grows  forty 
feet  high  in  its  native  soil ;  wood,  hard  and  reddish,  is 
good  for  carved  work ;  was  formerly  employed  for  mak- 
ing bows,  hence  its  classical  name  from  taxon,  an  arrow.* 


*  Arrows  were  formerly  poisoned  with  the  juice  of  the  yew  treo 
—Tr. 


336  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  leaves  and  sap  of  the  bark  are  said  to  be  narcotic 
and  injurious. 

The  American  ~Yew — Ground  Hemlock  (T.  Cana- 
densis)  is  a  low  and  straggling  bush,  never  forming  an 
ascending  trunk.  17. 

The  Juniper  (Juniperus  commuais),  leaves  in  threes, 
sitting  close,  prickly,  pointed,  is  an  evergreen  shrub, 
found  in  northern  Europe  and  Asia,  on  hills  and  pasture 
lands ;  grows  also  in  America  in  dry,  sterile  hills,  from 
New  Jersey  to  Maine,  eastward,  northward,  and  along 
the  great  lakes.  Berries  hang  on  the  bush  two  years  ; 
are  at  first  green,  next  purplish,  and,  last  of  all,  black. 
Contain  a  volatile  oil  and  a  portion  of  sugar.  Odor  bal- 
samic and  agreeable ;  taste  sweetish  bitter,  is  aromatic 
and  exciting,  and  used,  in  some  countries,  for  seasoning 
dishes  ;  employed  in  Holland  as  a  principal  ingredient  in 
the  making  of  gin.  h. 

The  Cypress  (Cupressus  sempervirens),  Tourne.,  is  a 
large  evergreen  tree  ;  trunk  slender,  in  form  resembling 
the  Italian  poplar  ;  leaves  consist  of  short,  minute  scales 
of  a  dull  green  color.  On  account  of  its  somber  appear- 
ance it  is,  in  the  East,  planted  in  burial  places.  Native  • 
of  the  whole  Levant,  Italy,  and  Spain ;  found  also  in  the 
United  States  in  swamps,  which  it  densely  and  exclus- 
ively occupies.  Wood  agreeably  odorous,  hard,  and  red- 
dish-yellow, is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  shingles,  pails, 
posts,  etc.  h. 

Arbor  Vitae  (Thuja  occidentalis)  is  a  tree  of  about 
fifty  feet  high ;  branches  spreading,  diminishing  in  size 
upwards ;  leaves,  evergreen,  consist  of  branchlets  more 
flat  and  broad  than  those  of  the  cedar ;  cones  oval  and 
terminal.  Abound  in  the  British  provinces  and  Northern 
States.  Transplanted  in  Europe  as  an  ornamental  tree. 


PLANTS.  337 

CLASS    II. 

ENDOGENOUS   OR   MONOCOTYLEDONOUS   PLANTS. 

Stem  not  distinguishable  into  bark,  pith,  or  wood. 
Growth  by  irregular  internal  accretions,  consisting  of 
bundles  of  vessels  and  woody  fibers,  not  arranged  in  con- 
centric rings,  the  last-formed  lying  close  to  the  axis  ; 
germ,  or  embryo  provided  with  a  single  seed-lobe  (coty- 
ledon), or  if  the  second  is  present,  it  is  alternate  with  it 
and  so  much  smaller,  that  neither  germ  nor  spore  are 
apparent. 

SUB-CLASS  I.  —  EXDOGEXS  WITH  SEED.  —  THE  Oncni- 
or  ORCHIS  FAMILY. 


The  plants  belonging  to  this  class  possess  both  germ 
and  seed  vessel,  plainly  developed. 

SIXTY-THIRD  FAMILY.  —  ORCHIS.  —  This  genus  con- 
sists chiefly  of  small  plants,  mostly  perennials  with  tub- 
erous or  thickened  roots.  —  (Class  20,  L.) 

Ragwort  (Orchis  morio,  Ambrosia,  Tourne).  The  iti- 
florescence  of  this  plant  resembles  grains  of  small  shot  ; 
leaves  lanceolate  and  spotted  ;  flowers  purplish,  spicate, 
or  racemous.  The  small  grains,  containing  much  gluten 
and  starch,  are  used  in  the  east  as  Salep  or  Saloop. 
They  are  prepared  by  first  having  hot  water  poured  over 
them  and  then  dried  quickly  in  the  sun.  Used  as 
medicine,  but  principally  as  a  seasoning  to  chocolate. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  orchis  found  in  the  United 
States.  2£  . 

The  Lady's  Slipper  (Cypripedum  calceolus).  Leaves 
oblong,  lanceolate  ;  root  fibrous  :  flowers  yellow,  shaped 


338  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

like  a  lady's  shoe.  Grows  in  meadows  and  woods  from 
Newfoundland  to  Carolina  ;  rare  in  Europe  ;  found  only 
on  mountains.  2£. 

Vanilla  Plant  (Vanilla  aromatica),  plate  28,  fig.  5, 
has  a  climbing  stalk,  which  twines  or  fastens  itself  on 
trees,  like  ivy ;  leaves  fleshy,  ovate,  or  lanceolate ;  stem 
succulent,  round,  and  about  as  thick  as  a  finger ;  roots 
itself  by  its  joints  in  the  bark  ;  flowers,  white,  stand  in 
terminal  racemes ;  fruit  a  kind  of  pod,  about  a  span  in 
length,  in  thickness  the  size  of  a  small  finger,  brown 
and  fleshy.  The  pulp,  also  brown,  is  full  of  small  seeds ; 
the  odor  delightfully  fragrant ;  taste  sweet  and  aromatic. 
Stimulating  and  of  delicious  flavor,  it  forms  a  favorite 
seasoning  for  chocolate  and  various  other  confections. 
Native  of  South  America ;  cultivated  in  Mexico.  The 
monkey  race  is  excessively  fond  of  this  plant,  and  visit- 
ing the  vanilla  plantations  in  troops,  commit  vast  depre- 
dations on  the  ripe  fruit,  therefore  it  is  usual  to  keep  a 
strict  guard  against  these  destructives. 

SIXTY-FOURTH  FAMILY.  —  ZINGIBERACE^:.  —  The 
plants  of  this  genus  resemble  reeds.  Flowers  mostly 
beautifully  colored  ;  fruit  or  root  contain  a  quantity  of 
stimulant  or  aromatic  substance. 

The  Cucumber  Root — East  India  Cucumber  (Cur- 
cuma longa).  Fruit  or  knob  oblong,  palmate,  spread- 
ing ;  internally  yellow ;  leaves  reed-like,  lanceolate ; 
flowers  yellowish-white,  arranged  in  ears  or  spikes  ;  cul- 
tivated largely  in  China  and  East  Indies.  Root  faintly 
pungent  and  aromatic,  is  used  as  ginger ;  chiefly  valuable 
for  the  beautiful  gold  color  extracted  from  it  (Turmeric), 
which,  however,  of  exceeding  brilliancy  at  first,  fades 
very  soon.  2f. 

Ginger  (Zingiber  officinale).      Leaves  small,  lanceo- 


PLANTS.  341 

'wn  Imperial  (Fritilaria  jmperialis).   flowers 

^  srianth  campanulate  ;  stem  thick,  high,  lower 

SP*  ®s-        *i  with  the  long,  narrow  leaves,  bearing  at  the 

.e  of  several  large  red  and  yellow  flowers, 

pecu  lar  y  p  t^^  formed  by  the  pairs  of  small,  narrow 

base  of  each  pedicel.     This  well  known 

™he  gardens  has  an  unpleasant  odor,  and 
varieties  of  this     ' 

.  T  narcotic  poison. 

and  Cardamum.  tne  Bfeetc, .       T,     .       ,    n.  •  j 

Boot  or  bulb  is  composed 
and  known  by  the  name  of  Paratuo^  fc 

J  a  common  m^ 

Arrow  Root  (Maranta  arundmaceje)  ^  .      ~;/-iike  ; 

branches  forked ;  leaves  lanceolate ;  flowers  paniculate, 
standing  in  sixes.  Cultivated  largely  in  South  America. 
Root  about  three  inches  long,  white,  and  of  the  thickness 
of  a  man's  thumb,  affords  the  well  known  arrow-root 
starch,  so  often  employed  as  pleasant  and  nutritive  diet 
for  invalids  and  weak  children.  It  is,  however,  fre- 
quently adulterated  with  starch,  which  deception  may 
easily  be  detected  in  the  boiling,  the  starch  making  it 
paste-like,  but  when  pure  it  is  more  fluid  and  transpar- 
ent. Proportion  of  arrow-root  flour  to  water  or  milk, 
1-80. 

SIXTY-FIFTH  FAMILY. — LILIACE^. — LILYWORTS. — 
(Class  3,  L.) 

The  Sword  Lily  (Iris  florentina).  Leaves  sword,  or 
rather,  sickle-shaped  (falcate)  ;  flowers  white,  without 
foot-stalks,  bearded  yellow ;  flowers  sometimes  bluish  ; 
the  root,  hard,  knobbed,  and  limbed,  has  a  pleasant  odor, 
resembling  that  of  violets,  known  as  orris-root,  and  often 
given  to  children  in  teething  to  bite  on.  Cultivated  in 
gardens  in  middle  Europe,  but  found  growing  wild  in 
Italy.  A  relative  species  and  neither  so  rare  or  valu- 
able, which  has  violet  flowers,  is  often  met  with  farther 
north.  2£. 


338  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

like  a  lady's  shoe.  Grows  in  meadows  and  t  Root  tuber- 
Newfoundland  to  Carolina  ;  rare  in  Europe  ;  fine  fibres  ; 
on  mountains.  2£.  vms  springing 

Vanilla  Plant  (Vanilla  aromatica),  platuite  sessile,  is 
has  a  climbing  stalk,  which   twines  or  fast*  of  a  beautiful 
trees,  like  ivy ;  leaves  fleshy,  ovate,  or  lar-he  plant,  both 
succulent,  round,  and  about  as  thick  as  -n   the  stigmas, 
itself  by  its  joints  in  the  bark  ^-f^fiirGh.     Native  of  the 
terminal  racemes ;  fi»»i«r  in  South  Germany,  France,  and 
nortacJn   tlvry1,  also  in  America.     The  odor  is  penetrat- 
ing and  aromatic,  and,  if  largely  inhaled,  narcotic ;  taste 
spicy,  bitter.     Used  for  coloring,  in  cookery,  and  medi- 
cinally.    As  it  commands  a  high  price,  it  is  often  adul- 
terated.     2£ . 

The  Narcissus — Poefs  Narcissus  (Narcissus  poeticus). 
Scape  about  a  foot  high,  straight,  one  flowering,  two 
edged ;  flowers  mostly  white,  but  having  the  crown  sin- 
gularly adorned  with  circles  of  crimson,  yellow,  and 
white.  Very  fragrant,  wherefore  it  is  frequently  planted 
in  gardens.  Native  of  southern  Europe  ;  found  in  mea- 
dows. ^ . 

Snowdrop  (Galanthus  nivalis)  is  snow-white,  the  out- 
side slightly  tinged  with  green.  These  beautiful  flowers 
come  forth  in  early  spring,  peering  above  the  snow. 
Root  a  small  brown  bulb ;  leaves  which  do  not  appear 
until  after  the  flower  is  faded,  are  long  and  of  a  bright 
green  color.  ^. 

The  Amaryllis  or  Jacobea  Lily  (Amaryllis  formosis- 
sima)  is  also  a  bulbous  root ;  flower  fine  dark  red,  some- 
what nodding,  is  very  splendid ;  perianth,  or  flower- 
envelope,  six-cleft,  comes  before  the  leaves.  A  native  of 
Mexico,  often  grown  with  us  in  large  pots  ;  blooming  in 
spring,  is  a  favorite  parlor  flower.  O- 


PLANTS.  341 

The  Crown  Imperial  (Fritilaria  .jmperialis).  flowers 
nodding;  perianth  campanulate  ;  stem  thick,  high,  lower 
part  invested  with  the  long,  narrow  leaves,  bearing  at  the 
top  a  raceme  of  several  large  red  and  yellow  flowers, 
beneath  a  crown  formed  by  the  pairs  of  small,  narrow 
leaves  at  the  base  of  each  pedicel.  This  well  known 
ornament  of  the  gardens  has  an  unpleasant  odor,  and 
contains  a  strong  narcotic  poison. 

Garlic  (Allium  sativum).  Root  or  bulb  is  composed 
of  many  smaller  ones,  surrounded  by  a  common  mem- 
brane ;  stem  leaved  midway ;  leaves  flat ;  flowers  small, 
white,  and  in  a  dense  umbel.  Originally  from  the  East, 
it  is  cultivated  everywhere.  Odor  very  penetrating  and 
unpleasant ;  taste  sweetish  and  spicy  ;  used  medicinally 
as  a  vermifuge  and  by  many  as  seasoning  in  a  variety  of 
dishes.  O-  Many  varieties ;  Meadow,  Field,  or  Crow 
Garlics,  etc. 

The  Common  Onion  (Allium  cepa),  stem  and  radical 
leaves  tubular  ;  flowers  white,  bloom  in  dense  umbels  or 
terminal  heads  ;  root,  a  bulb  depressed  or  turnip-shaped, 
consists  of  a  number  of  succulent  layers ;  the  juice  they 
contain  has  a  peculiarly  strong,  irritating  odor  ;  taste  is 
sweetish,  but,  in  most  'varieties,  very  unpleasantly  pun- 
gent. Nevertheless  it  is  considered  a  good  vegetable. 

Gives  (A.  schsenoprasum)  and  the  Shallot  (A.  asca- 
lonicum)  are  nearly  related  ;  both  are  natives  of  tropical 
lands. 

The  Sea  Onion — Squill  (Scilla  maritima).  Bulb 
ovoid  and  very  large  ;  leaves,  long  and  linear,  come  after 
the  flowers ;  shaft  or  stalk  high,  terminates  in  a  pyra- 
midal tuft  of  white  flowers.  Grows  on  the  sandy  flats  of 
the  Mediterranean.  Has  a  strong  and  pungent  odor ; 


342  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

taste  acrid,  sweetish,  and  bitter.  Used  medicinally  in 
pulmonary  and  other  complaints.  O- 

The  Hyacinth  (Hyacinthus  orientalis),  flower  (peri- 
anth) funnel-form,  half  six-cleft;  color  blue  or  pink, 
standing  in  dense  thyrsoid  racemes.  Leaves  rather  long 
and  partly  folded  together.  This  splendid  plant  was 
brought  originally  from  the  East ;  at  the  present  time 
much  cultivated  everywhere,  but  particularly  in  Holland. 
Propagated  by  bulbs.  Q. 

The  Agave  or  Aloe  (Aloe  vulgaris),  leaves  lanceolate, 
spiny,  dendate,  and  fleshy,  often  curling  at  the  point ; 
the  root  cylindrical  and  ligneous  (woody)  ;  flowers  green- 
ish-yellow, bloom  in  clusters ;  the  leaves  afford  a  bitter 
juice,  which  is  obtained,  partly  by  boiling  them,  and 
partly  by  making  incisions  into  their  fleshy  structures. 
This  sap  exposed  to  the  sun  hardens  into  a  resinous  gum, 
extremely  bitter,  which  is  used  in  medicine.  Native  of 
the  torrid  region  of  Africa,  but  transplanted  into  West 
Indies.  The  best  sort  of  aloes  is  brought  from  Barba- 
does.  12. 

The  Tulip  (Tulipa  gesneriana).  Scape  (flower-stem) 
one-flowered ;  flower  large,  erect,  mostly  red,  but  some- 
times variegated  ;  leaves  ovate,  -lanceolate.  Originally 
from  Lesser  Asia,  now  cultivated  everywhere  in  Europe 
and  America  as  an  ornamental  garden  plant ;  in  some 
places  in  Germany  found  growing  wild.  There  are  many 
varieties.  2£ . 

The  White  Lily  (Lilium  candidum)  has  a  thick  stem 
or  stalk  clothed  with  numerous  short,  alternate  scattered 
leaves  ;  radical  leaves  lanceolate,  narrowed  at  base ;  flow- 
ers snow-white  and  very  fragrant,  have  long  been  regarded 
as  the  emblems  of  innocence  and  purity.  Native  of 


PLANTS.  343 

Palestine,  but  highly  ornamental,  now  planted  in  gardens 
everywhere.  2£ .  Next  is 

The  Pine  Apple  (Bromelia  ananas),  root  fibrous  and 
thick;  leaves,  rigid,  dry,  and  spiny  on  the  edges,  are 
three  feet  long  and  three  inches  broad ;  the  fine  fruit 
which  is  formed  by  a  consolidation  of  the  imperfect  flow- 
ers, bracts,  and  receptacle  into  a  fleshy  succulent  mass, 
rises  on  a  stem  about  a  foot  in  length  from  the  middle  of 
the  leaves.  The  stem,  before  the  fruit  is  formed,  has  a 
terminal  tuft  of  leaves  and  purple  flowers,  and  again  an- 
other crown  of  red  or  yellow  leaves.  Fruit,  like  the 
artichoke,  is  overgrown  with  leaves,  often  one  foot  in 
length  and  six  inches  in  breadth,  is  yellow,  pulpy,  and 
of  delicious  flavor.  Seeds  small  and  brown,  and  pear- 
shaped.  Grows  almost  everywhere  in  South  America, 
thrives  best  in  sandy  soils,  and  is  as  a  refreshing  cordial 
to  the  wayfarer  in  those  arid  wastes.  The  wild  pine 
apple,  however,  is  by  no  means  so  luscious  as  that  nur- 
tured by  cultivation,  but  has  a  harsh  taste.  Propagated 
by  planting  the  tufted  crown  or  lateral  sprouts ;  the  first 
produces  better  plants,  but  are  longer  in  attaining  to 
maturity.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  cut  the  pine  apple 
very  thin,  and  pouring  wine  over  the  slices,  let  it  remain 
all  night ;  the  wine  pressed  out  in  the  morning,  will  be 
found  to  have  imbibed  all  the  delicious  aroma  of  the 
fruit.  A  relative  race  is 

The  Sinyalassi  (Bromelia  sagenaria),  which  bears 
fruit  of  an  inferior  kind ;  nevertheless,  is  not  less  useful, 
as  the  fibrous  leaves,  treated  as  hemp,  is  converted  into  a 
similar,  but  more  enduring  fabric.  When  matured  by 
the  same  process  as  has  been  described,  it  is  manufac- 
tured into  ropes,  whips,  nets,  etc. 

The  Tree  Aloe  or  Century  Plant  (Agave  americana), 


344  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

acaulescent,  herbaceous ;  scape  covered  at  base  with  leaf- 
like  scales,  above  with  broad,  fleshy  leaves,  spinous  on 
the  borders,  five  to  six  feet  long,  and  eight  inches  wide. 
Scape  arises  from  the  center  of  the  mass  of  leaves  to  a 
height  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet,  bearing  a  pyramidal 
panicle;  four  thousand,  it  is  said,  of  greenish-yellow 
flowers,  which,  as  soon  as  fully  expanded,  die.  It  is  a 
popular  notion  that  it  blooms  but  once  in  one  hundred 
years,  but  it  is  known  to  flower  oftener.  Much  depends 
on  the  culture  it  receives.  In  Mexico  the  peduncles  or 
knobs,  from  which  the  scape  producing  the  fruit  is  to 
spring,  are  cut  off,  the  richly-flowing  sap  collected,  and 
made  into  the  well-flavored  wine  called  Pulque.  The 
fibrous  portion  of  the  leaves  spun  into  thread,  and  manu- 
factured into  coarse  fabrics,  linen,  sail-cloth,  etc.,  and 
said  to  be  very  enduring.  Paper  can  also  be  made  from 
them ;  the  old  Mexicans,  in  the  days  of  their  glory  used 
them  for  that  purpose.  The  root  contains  a  reddish- 
colored  bitter  juice,  easily  extracted  by  spirits  of  wine, 
which  is  used  medicinally.  Found  growing  wild  on  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  since  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  Banana  (Musa  sapientum)  is  a  tree-like  shrub, 
twelve  to  thirteen  feet  high ;  stem  consists  of  a  sheath 
composed  of  different  layers  like  that  of  an  onion ;  crown 
leaves  eight  to  ten  feet  long  and  two  feet  broad.  Distin- 
guished by  a  simple  perianth  and  five  to  six  perfect 
stamens.  When  the  plant  is  five  to  six  months  old  a 
tuft  of  buds  comes  forth  on  the  crown ;  at  the  base  are 
from  thirty  to  sixty  androgynous  flowers,  six-staminate  ; 
at  the  terminal  portion  shoots  forth  a  globular  cone  com- 
posed of  violet-colored  flowers,  pistillate,  which  secrete 
a  quantity  of  sweet  juices.  The  staminate  flowers  hang 
in  cluster,  forming  each  a  single  fruit,  which  gradually 


PLANTS.  345 

attains  the  size  of  a  common  cucumber.  After  ten  or 
eleven  months,  this  fruit  is  what  is  called  tree-ripe,  con- 
tains a  mealy  pulp,  in  the  middle  of  which  is  a  slender 
column  surrounded  with  very  small  seeds ;  the  rind  is  at 
this  time  green.  When  fully  matured,  which  is  not  until 
ten  or  twenty  days  afterwards,  the  rind  turns  yellow, 
and  the  pulp  becomes  sweet  and  glutinous.  There  are 
now  two  kinds  of  fruit  to  be  found  on  the  same  tuft ; 
the  larger  fruit,  of  which  there  are  fewer,  viz.,  the  stam- 
inate  or  male  fruit,  and  the  pistillate,  or  that  produced 
by  the  female  flower ;  the  former  are  the  best.  In  the 
tree-ripe  state  bananas  are  good  and  wholesome  articles 
of  food,  are  used  boiled  or  roasted,  and  taste  like  a  mix- 
ture of  corn  meal  and  potatoes ;  when  fully  ripe,  they 
are  eaten  as  fruit.  In  South  America  the  banana  forms 
the  chief  article  of  food  for  the  negroes.  The  tree  after 
producing  such  a  crop  of  fruit,  often  forty  to  sixty 
pounds,  is  altogether  exhausted,  therefore  the  usual  prac- 
tice is  to  cut  the  top  off  and  turn  the  remaining  portion 
downwards,  so  that  new  scions  may  spring  up  from  the 
root  to  maintain  the  stock.  The  .acerb  sap  being  pressed 
from  the  leaves  and  seeds,  the  fibrous  portion  which  re- 
mains serves  to  be  manufactured  into  cordage  and  a  kind 
of  rough  paper.  This  genus,  known  by  the  various 
names  of  Pisang,  Plaintain,  and  Paradise  Fig,  is  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  now,  however,  found  throughout  the 
torrid  zone ;  was  known  to  the  ancients  by  the  name  of 
Pala.  Many  believe  the  banana  (paradise  fig)  to  have 
been  the  tree  by  whose  fruit  Eve  was  tempted  ;  others, 
with  more  probability,  suppose  that  the  great  clusters, 
brought  by  the  Jewish  spies  from  the  Valley  of  Eschol, 
which  were  so  heavy  that  it  required  two  men  to  carry 
15* 


346  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

one,  were  not  grapes,  but  the  clustered  fruit  of  the 
banana.  There  are  many  varieties  known  at  present. 

The  Bakuba  (M.  paradisica),  bearing  a  small  fruit  of 
about  a  finger's  length  and  proportionate  thickness,  left 
to  ripen  fully,  is  very  pleasant-tasted,  resembling  a  ber- 
gamot  pear,  but  is  a  much  finer  fruit.  The  superior 
variety  of  Bakubas  contain  no  seed.  O. 

SIXTY-SIXTH  FAMILY. — PALM^:. — PALM. — The  most 
majestic  race  of  plants.  Palrns  are  scarcely  ever  found 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  tropics,  where  they  not  only  de- 
light the  eye  with  the  beauty  of  their  structure,  but  re- 
fresh the  weary  wanderer  with  their  fruit.  The  young 
shoots  are  used  as  articles  of  every  day  diet,  and  the 
pulpy  pith — of  some  eatable — is  appropriated  to  various 
uses.  Seldom  found  growing  in  numbers  together  so  as 
to  form  a  grove ;  when  they  do  their  majestic  beauty  is 
lost,  presenting  nothing  to  the  eye  besides  a  dispropor- 
tionately small  crown  of  leaves,  and  a  columnar  mass  of 
gray  trunks.  They  mostly  grow  singly  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  other  trees,  and  are  to  the  tropical  forests  what 
the  pine  is  to  the  northern.  The  reader  must  not  sup- 
pose that  the  palm  tree  casts  a  spreading  shadow,  under 
which  the  traveler  may  repose,  for  its  entire  foliage  con- 
sists of  about  a  dozen  large,  feathery,  fan-like  leaves, 
forming  a  crown  at  the  top,  therefore  the  poet's  dream- 
ing "  under  the  shade  of  the  lofty  palm"  is  sheer  non- 
sense. Neither  ought  it  to  be  supposed  that  the  palm 
yields  so  abundantly,  that  its  fruit,  cabbage,  and  vin- 
ous sap  can  supply  a  whole  colony  with  food  and  drink. 
The  so-called  cabbage,  which  is  the  terminal  bud  of  the 
trunk,  does  indeed  furnish  a  delicious  article  of  food,  but 
the  procuring  of  it  costs  the  life  of  one  beautiful  tree, 
and  if  eaten  for  any  length  of  time  brings  on  dysentery. 


PLANTS.  347 

The  fruit  is  either  oleaginous  or  pulpy,  like  our  summer 
fruits,  therefore  not  solid  enough  to  furnish  every  day  food. 
The  tapping  of  the  trees  for  sake  of  the  sap,  also  mostly 
takes  away  their  life  ;  procuring  sago  from  the  trunk  of  the 
Palm  sagus,  E.  India,  found  growing  in  .the  Mauritius, 
and  said  to  contain  a  large  quantity  of  that  article,  is 
followed  by  the  same  consequences.  The  accounts  of  the 
extreme  fruitfulness  of  the  palm,  given  by  travelers,  are 
greatly  exaggerated,  as  any  one  who  travels  in  their 
native  region,  unprovided  with  a  supply  of  solid  food, 
will  find  out,  the  stomach  refusing  to  be  satisfied  solely 
with  its  produce.  Nevertheless,  the  palm  family,  in  its 
numerous  varieties,  is  eminently  useful,  affording  food, 
raiment,  wine,  oil,  wax,  flour,  sugar,  thread,  weapons, 
habitations,  and  utensils.  Although  there  are  many 
genera  of  this  race,  we  shall  only  mention  two  or  three. 

The  Date  Tree  (Phoenix  dactylifera),  the  leaves  of 
which  are  the  palms  of  Scripture.  A  native  of  northern 
Africa,  endures  the  climate  of  the  opposite  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  Palmetto  (Chamserops  palmetto), 
the  only  arborescent  species  of  the  United  States.  One 
or  two  low  palms  with  a  creeping  caudex  (dwarf  palmet- 
toes)  are  found  from  Florida  to  North  Carolina.* 

The  Sayo  Palm  (Sagus  rumphii)  is  a  large  tree,  al- 
though it  does  not  measure  more  than  thirty  feet ;  leaves 
pinnate  with  large  segments  ;  leaf-stalks  spiny.  Of  slow 
growth,  the  sago  palm  remains  a  naked  shrub  for  a  long 

*  The  Palmacese  are  perhaps  not  surpassed  by  any  other  order  in 
point  of  usefulness.  The  leaves  are  used  for  thatching,  making  hats, 
mats,  baskets,  fences,  for  torches,  and  for  writing  upon ;  the  stalk  and 
midrib  for  oars  ;  their  ashes  yield  an  abundance  of  potash;  the  juice 
of  the  flowers  and  stems,  replete  with  sugar,  is  fermented  into  a  kind 
of  wiue  or  distilled  into  Arrack;  from  its  spathes,  as  from  some  othei 


848  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

time ;  at  length  a  sheath  from  which  sprouts  a  very  large 
panicle,  appears  in  the  middle  of  the  plant,  the  whole 
resembling  an  immense  candelabra.  Flowers  hang  in 
catkins.  The  fruit  is  uneatable,  and  contains  hard  ker- 
nels like  small  shot.  The  useful  part  of  this  tree  is  the 
central  pith,  which  is  taken  from  the  stem  before  the 
terminal  bud  begins  to  shoot.  This  pithy  portion  re- 
sembles fine  meal,  and  known  as  the  East  Indian  Sago, 
is  used  largely  as  nutritive  food.  Native  of  India.  '2. 

The  Cabbage  Tree  (Euterpe  oleracese),  seventy  feet 
in  height.  This  palm  is  a  handsome  tree,  growing  per- 
pendicularly straight ;  stem  two-thirds  gray  below,  upper 
third  green ;  the  feathery- leaved  crown,  light  and  grace- 
ful, is  pleasing  to  the  eye.  Under  this  crown  are  the 
sheaths,  from  which  the  flower-tufts  or  bulbs  develope ; 
fruit,  a  berry  altogether  uneatable.  As  long  as  these ' 
flower-bulbs  remain  soft  they  can  be  taken  out  and  eaten 
as  are  the  terminal  buds  of  the  true  palm  ;  so,  also,  the 
young  unopened  leaves.  If  the  tree  is  cut  down  and  the 
trunk  left  lying  on  the  ground,  the  palm  beetle  deposits 
its  eggs  within  them,  and  the  numerous  larva?  soon  deve- 
lope, adding,  it  is  said,  much  to  their  excellence  ;  found 
everywhere  within  the  tropics.  The  Royal  Palm  is  a 
relative  species.  ]?. 

The  Maritz  Palm  (Mauritia  flcxusa)  has  a  straight, 
smooth  stem  and  fan-like  leaves  ;  height  sixty  feet ;  flow- 


pulms,  -when  -wounded,  flows  a  grateful  beverage,  known  in  India  as 
Toddy ;  the  rind  13  used  for  culinary  vessels,  the  outer  portion  into 
very  strong  cordage  (Coir  rope) ;  the  kernels,  expressed,  make  oil. 
Canes  and  ratans  are  the  slender,  often  prostrate,  stems  of  species  of 
Calamus.  The  Phyttphelas  of  South  America  yields  the  larger  sort 
of  nuts,  the  hard  and  white  albumen  of  which  is  the  vegetable  ivory, 
now  so  largely  used  by  the  turners. — OKAY. — Tr. 


PLANTS.  349 

ers  bloom  in  catkins ;  bears  berries  or  fruit  about  the 
size  of  a  ben's  egg,  contain  when  perfectly  ripe  a  brown- 
ish-yellow pulp,  which  adheres  closely  to  the  seed ;  used, 
partly  eaten  as  fruit,  and  mixed  with  water  as  a  refresh- 
ing drink.  The  natives  prepare  a  kind  of  hemp  from 
the  leaves,  which,  although  very  strong  and  tough  if 
kept  dry,  decays  soon  when  wet.  Its  true  home  is 
South  America,  where  it  is  found  in  swampy  places 
only.  TJ. 

The  Date  Palm  (Phoenix  dactylifera),  plate  27,  fig.  1. 
Trunk  knobbed  and  rough  ;  leaves  pinnate ;  leaflets  small 
and  lanceolate ;  fruit  red  or  brownish,  about  the  size  of  a 
plum,  egg-shaped,  somewhat  recurved.  The  trees  are  of 
different  sexes,  being  both  male  and  female.  Native  of 
southern  Asia  and  northern  Africa,  the  date  palm  has 
thence  been  transplanted  into  Arabia  and  Persia.  Great 
care  is  expended  on  the  culture  of  this  tree,  because  the 
livelihood  of  the  cultivator  depends  as  much  upon  their 
annual  harvest  as  does  the  European  farmer  upon  the 
measure  of  his  crop  of  grain.  Only  a  few  of  the  male 
trees  are  kept  on  the  plantation  ;  the  pollen-bearing 
branches  are,  however,  cut  off  and  preserved  for  a  whole 
year  without  injury  to  their  fructifying  properties.  The 
date  season  or  harvest  is  a  regular  festival  time ;  all  flock 
to  ossist  in  gathering  the  ripe  fruit ;  the  song,  the  dance 
and  merry  sports  lend  an  enlivening  influence,  and  driv- 
ing away  care,  all  are  merry.  Some  of  the  fruit  is  eaten 
green  (not  dried)  ;  in  this  case  it  is  carefully  separated 
from  the  riper,  which,  dried  and  sent  abroad,  is  known 
and  welcome  everywhere.  In  our  country  dates  are  con- 
sidered a  luxury,  and  recommended  to  invalids  as  both 
nutritive  and  refreshing.  In  Arabia  they  are  used  as 
common  food  both  for  man  and  beasts,  h. 


350  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

The  Komu  Palm  (GEnocarpus  bacaba)  is  a  tall  and 
slender  tree,  measuring  about  fifty  feet  in  height ;  leaves 
small  and  pinnatified  ;  fruit,  pulpy  drupes,  amounting  to 
several  hundreds,  and  about  the  same  size  as  shot,  and 
resembling  sloeberries,  are  borne  on  broom-like  panicles, 
from  two  to  four  feet  in  length.  The  stone  is  very  hard, 
but  the  pulp  surrounding  it  is  brown  and  tastes  like  cho- 
colate. This  fruit  soaked  in  warm  water  until  it  is  soft- 
ened and  grated  makes  a  very  refreshing  beverage,  and 
tastes  much  like  chocolate  ;  the  panicels  serve  for  mak- 
ing brooms,  and  the  wood  for  canes  and  umbrella  stocks. 
Found  abundantly  in  South  America,  b . 

The  Avara  (Elais  guinensis)  is  slender  and  very 
thorny,  measures  forty  feet  in  height ;  leaves  two  to 
three  feet  long,  pinnatified,  and  falcate.  Flowers  panicu- 
late, producing  a  drupaceous  fruit,  four  to  six  hundred, 
plum-shaped  and  yellow.  The  hard  black  kernel  of  the 
nut  contains  the  oily  principle  from  which  the  article, 
called  in  Africa  Palm  Oil,  is  made.  The  avara  has  been 
transplanted  into  South  America ;  the  fruit  serves  there 
only  as  food  for  swine. 

The  Maripa  Palm,  with  its  sweet  pulp  and  handsome 
brown  seeds  bears  much  likeness  to  the  avara ;  rings  and 
other  ornaments  of  the  same  kind  are  made  from  the 
seeds  of  the  maripa,  which  are  very  handsome,  but  break 
easily.  I2. 

The  Cocoa  Palm  (Cocos  nucifera)  has  no  thorns ; 
leaves  sword-shaped,  is  one  of  the  most  useful  trees  upon 
the  earth,  very  large,  and  grows  in  the  sandy  and  most 
unfruitful  regions  of  the  torrid  zone.  Even  when  too 
young  to  bear  fruit,  the  tender  leaves  afford  palatable 
food,  and  are  used  as  cabbage.  Flowers  yellowish,  stand 
in  paniculate  clusters,  followed  by  fruit,  the  well  known 


PLANTS.  351 

cocoa-nut,  about  the  size  of  an  infant's  head,  the  outside 
rind  of  which  consists  of  a  fibrous  covering,  and  a  few 
coarse  leaves  resembling  the  bark  of  undressed  hemp. 
Under  this  rough  envelope  the .  nut  is  found,  large  and 
obtusely  triangular,  brown  and  hard.  A  considerable 
quantity  of  milk,  sweet,  and  tasting  like  almonds,  may 
be  obtained  by  boring  into  the  shell,  the  inside  of  which 
is  lined  with  a  hard  but  oily  flesh,  rich  and  nut-like ;  the 
shell  must  be  broken  or  sawed  asunder  in  order  to  get  at 
the  pulp.  Even  the  expanding  sheaths  are  made  sub- 
servient to  useful  purposes,  for  when  cut  into  or  wounded 
the  sap  flows  freely,  is  very  sweet,  and  after  undergoing 
a  certain  process  of  fermentation,  converted  into  palm 
wine,  which  is  considered  a  ve.ry  superior  liquor.  The 
shell  of  the  nut  is  used  by  turners  for  ornamental  work. 
The  small  branches  of  the  cocoa  nut  palm,  emblematic  of 
peace  and  friendship,  are  planted  on  festival  days  in  front 
of  houses.  The  wood  is  very  fibrous,  and  therefore  not 
fit  for  building  purposes.  Found  everywhere  within  the 
tropical  regions,  although  its  true  home  is  in  the  East 
Indies.  '?.  To  this  genus  succeeds  that  of 

The  Yam  (Dioscorea  alata),  which  is  a  handsome, 
herbaceous  plant,  cultivated  everywhere  within  the  tro- 
pics; stems  twining  from  large  tuberous  roots;  leaves 
alternate,  ovate,  arrow-shaped  ;  flowers  small  and  yel- 
lowish, form  thick  clusters  a  span  long,  the  sterile  in 
drooping  panicles,  the  fertile  in  drooping,  simple  racemes, 
and  the  whole  growth  of  the  plant  is  so  luxuriant,  as  of 
itself  to  form  an  arbor.  The  most  important  part,  how- 
ever, are  the  tuberous  roots,  which,  in  one  year  are 
larger  than  the  largest-sized  apple ;  left  in  the  earth  for 
a  longer  time,  they  still  continue  to  grow ;  contain  a 
great  deal  of  starch,  and  very  mealy,  taste  like  the  best 


352  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

potatoes,  and  furnish  the  well  known  Maudioc  meal.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  roots  be  well  covered  with  earth, 
as  the  exposed  portion  is  very  bitter.  Yams  are  much 
valued  as  a  nutritive  every  day  diet.  2£. 

Calamus — Sweet  Flag  (Acorus  calamus).  Leaves 
linear,  two-edged,  sword-like  ;  roots  creeping,  long, 
branching  out  vertically.  Grows  in  swampy  places, 
margins  of  rivulets,  etc. ;  found  everywhere  in  Europe, 
abundant  in  Pennsylvania ;  about  five  feet  high,  and 
from  the  structure  of  its  leaves  has  much  the  appearance 
of  a  large  sword-lily.  The  root,  reddish  outside,  white 
within,  is  pungent,  bitter  and  aromatic  to  the  taste,  but 
of  an  agreeable  balsamic  odor;  preserved  fresh  with 
sugar,  it  makes  a  pleasant  medicine,  used  as  a  stomachic 
and  tonic.  Originally  a  native  of  Asia.  2£. 

The  Pepper  Bush  (Piper  nigrum),  plate  27,  fig.  2, 
is  shrub-like  and  climbing  ;  leaves  ovoid,  egg-shapod, 
pointed,  leathery,  and  naked ;  flowers  arranged  in  spicate 
racemes.  Fruit,  composed  of  grains,  about  the  size  of 
peas,  which  hang  together  in  clusters  of  from  twenty  to 
thirty,  of  a  red  color ;  ripens  in  four  months.  Pepper  is 
taken  from  the  bush  before  it  is  fully  ripe,  and  left  to 
dry  in  the  sun ;  eight  or  ten  days  is  sufficient  for  this 
purpose  :  the  red  color  is  changed  into  black,  the  grains 
hardened,  and  now  become  fitted  for  an  article  of  com- 
merce, it  is  exported  and  known  as  Black  Pepper.  White 
pepper,  which  is  considered  superior  to  black,  and  com- 
mands a  higher  price,  is  the  fruit  of  the  same  plant  and 
the  same  berry,  but  divested  of  the  red  pulp ;  used  every- 
where, and  valued  by  all  for  its  conservative  properties, 
no  further  description  of  this  valuable  spice  is  necessary, 
since  every  one  is  familiar  with  its  peculiar  aromatic 
odor  and  pungent  taste. 


PLANTS.  353 

SIXTY-SEVENTH  FAMILY.  —  GRAMINE^B.  —  GRASSES. 
— Steins  usually  hollow  and  jointed  or  with  nodes, 
from  which  the  leaves,  partly  surrounded  with  a  mem- 
branous ligula  or  stipule  (membranous  appendage)  at 
the  base  of  the  leaf  or  summit  of  the  sheath  in  the 
grasses.  Inflorescence  very  abundant,  arranged  in  spikes, 
panicles,  or  racemes.  The  seed  or  grain  clothed  first 
with  a  fine  thin  skin,  is  also  enveloped  in  another  cover- 
ing, which,  of  an  oblong  shape  and  dry,  is  known  as 
chaff,  and  many  have  the  chaff  furnished  with  awns,  a 
bristle-like  process,  called  beards  or  barbs.  The  plants 
belonging  to  this  order,  Gramineae,  the  largest  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  and  most  universally  diffused,  are  also 
doubtless  the  most  important ;  the  nutritious  herbage, 
whether  used  green  as  pasture  or  dry  as  hay,  and  seeds 
constitute  the  chief  support  of  herbivorous  animals,  and 
the  cereals,  seeds  or  grains  filled  with  floury  albumen, 
and  cultivated  carefully  everywhere,  furnish  food  for 
man.  Many  of  these  farinaceous  seeds  also  contain  a 
considerable  portion  of  sugar.  The  most  important  mea- 
dow and  pasture  grasses  are 

I. — CYPERACE.E. — SEDGES. — HALF  GRASSES. 

The  Sandseggp — Sand  Reed — White  Grass  (Vignea 
arenaria).  Eoot  creeping;  leaves  small,  flat,  striped; 
stalk  very  tall ;  palae  (chaff,  or  immediate  floral  covering), 
oblong;  triangular  ears;  thick  spikelets;  blooms  in 
May ;  grows  in  sandy  bottoms,  arid  furnishes  indiffer- 
ently good  fodder  for  cattle. 

Reed  Cut  Grass — Sedge  (Vignea  acuta),  root  creep- 
ing ;  leaves  small,  flat,  sharply  cutting  ;  chaff,  or  husk, 
oblong,  strongly  bristled,  slender ;  spikelets  (ears)  brown. 


354  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Grows  in  pasture  lands  on  the  borders  of  stagnant 
waters ;  blooms  in  May  or  June ;  as  food  for  cattle 
rather  indifferent. 

Low  or  Creeping  Reed  Grass — Sedge  Grass  (Carex 
supina).  Root  creeping ;  glumes,  (outer  chaff,  or  stunted 
leaf  sheaths),  small  and  sharply  acute;  stalk  smooth,  tall, 
rigid  ;  ears  or  spikes  small.  Grows  on  hills  and  in  dry 
pasture  lands.  Blooms  in  May  and  makes  indifferent 
fodder. 

Early  Reed— Bent  Grass  (Carex  prsecox),  creeping 
root  ;  leaflets  small,  acute,  boat-shaped ;  chaff-glumes 
smooth,  poor  ;  ears  wedge-shaped.  Found  in  sunny 
places,  appearing  verdant  as  soon  as  the  snow  is  gone. 
Flowers  in  March,  April,  and  May.  Sheep  eat  it  with 
great  readiness. 

IT. — AGROSTIDE.E. — TRUE  GRASSES. 

The  Common  Red  Top — Bent  Grass  (Agrostis  vul- 
garis)  has  a  running  root ;  leaves  linear,  flat,  rough  ; 
stalk  or  stem  one  foot  high,  erect ;  panicle  spreading, 
with  the  branches  finally  divaricate.  A  common  grass, 
spread  over  hills,  vales,  and  meadows,  forming  a  soft, 
dense  turf.  Blooms  in  June  and  August,  and  makes 
valuable  fodder  for  sheep. 

The  Dog's  Bent  Grass  (Agrostis  canina),  root  creep- 
ing ;  upper  leaves  linear,  flat ;  lower  rather  crowded  at 
base  of  the  stem,  rough  ;  spikes  upright  or  bending, 
smooth  ;  grain  triangular,  ovoid,  dark  brown.  Blooms 
in  July  and  August,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  summer 
makes  a  fine  turf,  alike  over  dry  and  damp  places,  yards, 
lanes,  etc.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  are  fond  of  feeding 
on  it. 


PLANTS.  355 

German  Penning  Grass  (Panicutn  germanicum,  L.) 
has  small  leaves  ;  stem  rather  short  and  erect ;  flowers 
in  panicles  ;  blooms  in  July  and  August ;  makes  good 
fodder  for  cattle,  and  on  that  account  is  cultivated  in 
many  places.  Crop  or  Crab  Grass. 

The  Canary  Seed  Grass  (Phalaris  canariensis),  leaves 
flat;  stalk  high,  nearly  smooth,  rather  bent;  panicle 
oval,  spiked  ;  blooms  in  July  and  August ;  sometimes, 
but  sparingly,  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the  seed,  which 
is  used  as  food  for  parlor  birds.  Cattle  eat  it  very 
readily. 

Timothy — Cat's  Tail  or  Herd's  Grass  (Phleum 
prsetense).  Root  very  fibrous ;  leaves  flat ;  stem  high, 
smooth  ;  spike  cylindrical,  very  dense  and  harsh  ;  flowers 
in  upright  ear-like  panicles  of  unequal  lengths.  Blooms 
in  June,  July,  and  August ;  grows  in  meadows,  and  al- 
though a  rough  grass,  is  very  valuable  as  hay. 

Meadow  Fox-tail  Grass  (Alopecuris  praetensis),  root 
tufted  and  fibrous ;  leaves  long,  smooth  ;  stem  tall  and 
smooth ;  inflorescence  spike-form,  cylindric,  and  of  a 
tawny-yellow  ;  flower-sheaths  woolly  or  bristly ;  blooms 
in  May  or  June  ;  abundant  in  meadows  and  pasture- 
fields.  Several  species  of  Floating  Fox-tail  (Alope- 
curii),  found  in  moist  meadows,  Water  Fox-tail,  rather 
rare,  growing  in  water  or  wet  grounds,  all  make  excel- 
lent food  for  cattle. 

Sweet-scented  Vernal  Grass  (Anthoxantum  odora- 
tum).  Leaves  flat ;  stalk  tall,  erect ;  spikelets  yellow; 
flowers  in  spiked  panicles ;  blooms  from  May  to  July  ; 
found  in  high-lying  pasture-lands,  sunny  meadows, 
etc. ;  very  sweet-scented  in  drying ;  taste  also  very 
sweet ;  makes  excellent  fodder. 

The  Hair  Grass  (Aim  flexuosa)  has  leaves  resembling 


356  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

bristles ;  stem  tall,  smooth ;  flowers  not  numerous,  in 
loose  panicles  ;  an  erect,  elegant  grass,  growing  in  tufts. 
Grows  on  hills  or  in  shady  woods,  and  with  all  others  of 
the  Avenae  tribe,  makes  rather  poor  provender  for  cattle. 

Tall  Oat  Grass — Golden  (Avena  flavescens),  root 
somewhat  creeping ;  leaves  flat,  and  clothed  with  soft 
white  hairs  ;  stem  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  high  ;  flow- 
ers yellow ;  spikelets  in  panicles ;  blooms  in  June  and 
July  in  meadows  and  lots  or  by  road-sides,  and  with  all 
other  genera  of  the  arrhenatherum,  is  eaten  readily  by 
all  species  of  cattle. 

French  Ray  Grass  or  Honey  Grass  (Holcus  avena- 
ceus)  resembles  oats;  root  tuberous  and  knotty;  leaves 
flat  and  sharply  pointed ;  stem  hollow  and  bare  ;  inflor- 
escence-spikelets  from  two  to  five  ;  flowers  in  a  large, 
loose,  somewhat  nodding  panicle ;  bloom  in  June,  July, 
and  August.  Grows  in  fields,  and  meadows,  etc.  ;  suc- 
ceeds best  in  tolerably  rich  soils,  endures  for  many  years, 
and  can  be  cut  for  hay  two  or  three  times  in  one  season ; 
makes  excellent  fodder. 

Common  Ray  Grass — Brome  Grass  (Bromus  gigan- 
teus),  leaves  oblong,  broad,  naked ;  stem  three  to  four 
feet  high  ;  panicles  small  and  loose ;  flowers  in  June, 
July,  and  August.  Grows  in  moist  fields  and  damp 
woods,  and,  like  all  other  grasses  of  the  bromus  tribe, 
makes  alike  very  poor  pasture  and  hay. 

Sheep's  Fescue  or  Manna  Grass  (Festuca  ovina). 
Leaves  very  narrow  and  sharp-pointed  ;  stem  one  to  two 
feet  high,  almost  four  square;  panicle  few-flowered, 
simple,  and  contracted ;  blooms  in  May  and  June.  A 
valuable  grass,  grows  in  dry  soils,  is  common,  and  affords 
with  all  others  of  the  fescue  tribe,  excellent  pasturage  for 
sheep. 


PLANTS.  357 

Orchard  or  Cock's  Foot  Grass  (Dactylis  glomerata"), 
leaves  small,  flat,  and  very  sharp  on  the  margins  ;  stem 
erect,  from  nine  to  eighteen  inches  long,  oblique,  geni- 
culate,  often  procumbent  and  radiating  at  base  ;  panicles 
spicate,  pyramidal ;  blooms  in  June,  July,  and  August ; 
grows  well  in  dry  meadows,  and  makes  very  good 
fodder. 

The  Common  Rough  Meadow  Grass  (Poa  trivialis). 
Root  tufted;  leaves  small,  naked;  stem  round,  two  to 
three  feet  high  ;  panicles  loose,  expanding  ;  grows  in 
moist  meadows,  and,  like  all  the  other  meadow  grasses, 
makes  good  hay. 

Coutch  or  Quitch  Grass  (Triticum  repens).  Roots 
creeping ;  leaves  sharp  above ;  sheaths  smooth  ;  stalk 
from  one  to  three  feet  high  ;  spike  solitary,  ear-like ; 
blooms  from  June  until  September;  grows  in  all  fields 
as  a  common  weed.  Makes  good  fodder  ;  the  root  con- 
tains a  portion  of  mucilaginous  sugar,  which  is  used 
medicinally.  Native  of  Europe,  but  introduced  into  the 
United  States. 

Rye  Grass — Darnel  (Lolium  perenne),  root  creep- 
ing ;  leaves  small,  sharply  poihted ;  stalk  one  to  two 
feet  high ;  spike  compressed,  slightly  bearded ;  blooms 
from  June  until  September ;  grows  wild  in  pasture  fields, 
but  is  also  carefully  cultivated  on  account  of  its  excel- 
lence as  fodder. 

The  most  important  of  all  the  grasses  belongs  to  the 
triticum  race,  namely : 

Common  Wheat  (Triticum  vulgare),  which  has  a 
fibrous  root ;  leaves  rather  rough  on  the  upper  surface, 
and  long;  stem  smooth,  two  to  three  feet  tall,  crowned 
with  an  almost  four-cornered  terminal  spike,  on  which 
the  grains  arranged  somewhat  like  tiles,  form  an  ear. 


358  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

These  seeds  are,  in  most  of  the  varieties,  naked,  or  with- 
out any  floral  envelope,  but  strongly  bearded ;  in  a  few 
of  the  species,  however,  the  beards  are  altogether  want- 
ing. Native  of  Asia,  wheat  has  been  cultivated  since 
time  immemorial  in  Europe,  and  as  a  breadstuff  is  entitled 
to  a  preference  above  all  the  other  cereals.  The  finest 
bread,  starch,  etc.,  is  made  from  it,  and  in  some  places 
is  used  in  making  malt  for  beer.  Cultivated  as  a  spring 
and  winter  crop.  Q. 

Spelt  (Triticum  spelta)  has  a  fibrous  root,  with  a 
loose,  compressed,  terminal  spike,  on  which  the  grains 
are  parallel,  and  arranged  like  tiles  on  a  roof.  Beards 
or  barbs  very  small  and  fall  off  easily.  Stem  about  four 
feet  high,  but  not  naked,  like  the  above  mentioned. 
Used  in  Germany  in  the  same  manner  as  common  wheat. 

Emmer  (Triticum  amyleum),  a  species  of  wheat  un- 
known in  the  United  States ;  used  in  the  North  of  Eu- 
rope. Spikelets  double-flowering ;  flowers  alternately 
barren ;  chaff,  in  which  the  oblong  seed  remains  acotid 
on  a  crooked  shaft ;  makes  good  flour.  O . 

Single  Wheat  or  Peter's  Corn  (Triticum  monococcum). 
Spike  compressed;  spikelets  triple-flowering;  one  bud 
fruitful,  two  abortive ;  chaff  tri-dentate,  external  side- 
bearded  ;  seed  apparently  triangular,  remains  in  the 
husk.  Grows  in  poor  ground,  and  makes  good  meal. 
Native  of  Europe. 

Rye  (Secale  cereale).  One  of  the  most  useful  of  the 
grain  race,  rye  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  long,  four- 
sided  pendulous  ear  or  spike,  which  is  compressed ;  grain 
naked,  arranged  as  tiles,  imbricate,  and  strongly  bearded. 
Rye  produces  a  darker  meal  than  the  two  foregoing'  cere- 
als ;  nevertheless  the  bread  made  from  it  is  very  nutri- 
tive, and  when  newly  baked,  is  sweeter  than  that  of 


PLANTS.  359 

wheat ;  it  can  not,  however,  be  used  for  any  kind  of  fine 
pastry.  The  seed  is  subject,  particularly  in  very  wet 
seasons,  to  become  diseased  and  enlarged,  producing 
Ergot  or  Spurred  Rye.  This  diseased  grain  is  injurious 
to  health  when  made  into  bread,  but  has  been  found  to 
possess  important  medical  qualities  in  certain  cases — re- 
quires a  careful  administration.  Some  late  observers 
have  considered  it  a  fungous  or  mushroom  growth.  Q- 

Barley  (Hordeum  vulgare)  has  a  very  long  spike ; 
florets  arranged  in  six  rows,  two  of  which,  when  the 
fruit  or  grain  is  ripe,  are  somewhat  compressed,  giving 
the  ear  a  four-sided  appearance ;  beards  very  strong  ; 
seed  or  grain  covered  with  husks.  Barley  contains  less 
flour  than  the  other  cereals,  therefore  it  is  cultivated 
more  for  the  use  of  breweries,  in  making  malt,  than  for 
bread-stuff.  Barley-bread  is  unknown  in  the  United 
States,  nevertheless  much  barley  is  consumed  in  the 
form  of  beer.  It  contains  a  large  portion  of  mucilage, 
which  makes  it  very  nutritive  and  wholesome ;  therefore 
often  prepared  in  various  ways  for  the  use  of  invalids. 
Malt  is  made  by  wetting  the  barley  and  suffering  it  to 
germinate ;  thus  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar  being 
developed,  the  whole  undergoes  a  vinous  fermentation, 
and  beer  is  produced.  Decoctions  of  malt  are  considered 
useful  in  pulmonary  complaints. 

Oats  (A vena  sativa).  This  cereal  is  distinguished  by 
its  loose  and  smaller  panicles — not  spikes — somewhat 
nodding,  and  without  beards.  Fruit,  or  grain,  is  enveloped 
in  a  husk,  and  contains  less  nutritive  matter  even  than 
barley,  therefore  rarely  used  for  making  bread  ;  although 
in  Scotland  many  live  on  it,  and  oat-meal  porridge,  or 
groats,  is  often,  in  this  country,  recommended  to  invalids. 
It  is  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  and  elsewhere, 


360  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

mainly  as  provender  for  horses,  and  in  this  quality  is 
superior  to  any  other  grain.  Besides  the  meal  contained 
in  its  chaffy  fruit,  it  possesses  an  aromatic  property, 
which  an  accomplished  cook  can  turn  into  all  the  uses  of 
vanilla.  Nevertheless,  it  makes  bad  bread.  Q. 

The  Sugar  Cane  (Saccharum  officinarum),  plate  28,  fig. 
1,  has  a  stalk  containing  a  solid  pith,  which  is  filled  with 
a  saccharine  juice.  Leaves  linear-lanceolate,  long,  broad, 
acuminate.  Flowers  white,  bloom  in  panicles,  loosely 
branching ;  florets  invested  at  base  with  tufts  of  long 
silky  hairs.  The  true  home  of  the  sugar  cane  is  Mes- 
sopotamia ;  man  has  therefore  been  acquainted  with  the 
use  of  sugar  since  the  earliest  times.  In  the  middle  ages, 
this  plant  was  introduced  by  the  Arabians  into  Crete, 
Malta,  and  Spain,  and,  after  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica, transplanted  by  the  Spaniards  into  the  West  Indies. 
The  following  slight  description  will  give  our  readers  an 
idea  of  the  process  by  which  sugar  is  made.  The  sugar 
cane  is  rarely  permitted  to  flower,  but  after  twelve  or 
eighteen  months'  growth — at  which  time  the  stem  is  sup- 
posed to  contain  more  sap  than  at  any  other — the  stalks 
'are  cut  off  with  a  sickle,  and  put  into  a  kind  of  press  or 
mill.  This  press,  however,  is  very  different  from  that 
used  in  the  making  of  wine,  already  described,  and  consists 
of  three  iron  rollers,  placed  vertically  or  horizontally, 
between  which  the  canes  are  passed  and  repassed,  and 
which,  pressing  out  the  sap,  leaves  them  completely  dry. 
The  machinery  is  propelled  by  steam  or  water  power. 
The  sap  or  juice  is  at  first  brown,  and  contains,  besides 
the  crystallized  portion  of  saccharine  matter  known  as 
sugar,  a  quantity  of  sweet  but  watery  syrup,  containing 
also  a  portion  of  essential  oil  and  mucilaginous  gum. 
This  syrup  is  separated  from  the  granulated  sugar, 


PLANTS.  361 

known  to  us  as  brown  sugar,  by  various  methods, 
which  serve  to  elaborate  the  finest  portions  into  loaf 
sugar,  and  separate  the  thickened  syrup,  also  well  known 
as  molasses.  Sugar  has  become  an  indispensable  article 
in  domestic  economy  •  not  only  in  the  preparation  of 
food,  beverages,  or  cordials  used  in  every  day  life,  but 
is  also  employed  medicinally.  Rum  is  a  distillation  of 
the  fermented  juice  of  the  sugar  cane.  Sugar  candy  is 
produced  by  a  more  elaborate  process  of  refining ;  and 
in  all  the  various  forms  of  confectionary,  preserves,  etc., 
sugar  is  the  principal  ingredient.  The  cultivation  of  the 
sugar  cane  succeeds  best  in  moist  lands  within  the  tropics, 
and  is,  on  this  account,  considered  an  unhealthy  business 
for  Europeans ;  it  does  not,  however,  seem  to  be  attended 
with  the  same  deleterious  effect  to  the  natives  or  negroes. 
This  noble  grass  is  propagated  by  sections  or  cuttings 
from  the  root  end,  planted  in  hills  or  trenches,  in  spring 
or  autumn,  something  in  the  manner  of  hops.  The  cut- 
tings take  root  from  the  joints  underground,  and  from 
those  above  send  up  shoots  which  grow  so  quickly,  that  in 
from  ten  to  fourteen  months  they  are  six  to  ten  feet  long, 
and  fit  to  send  to  the  mill.  Requires  to  be  kept  clear  of 
weeds,  and,  although  of  such  luxuriant  growth,  exhausts 
the  earth  so  little  that  a  good  plantation  will  last  from 
ten  to  sixteen  years,  it. 

Rice  (Oryza  sativa)  also  has  its  flowers  arranged  in  a 
compressed  panicle ;  spikelets  are  uniflorous,  on  pedicels, 
mostly  without  beards.  It  is,  according  to  some,  origin- 
ally from  the  East  Indies,  others  say  Africa,  but  is  now 
cultivated  in  all  warm  climates.  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America  furnish  most.  As  rice  contains  a  great  deal  of 
starch,  it  is  never  used  for  making  bread,  but  prepared 
in  various  other  ways  for  table  use,  forms  an  important 
16 


S62  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

article  in  domestic  economy.  It  must  be  cultivated  in 
low  grounds,  which  can  be  irrigated  or  overflowed  witb 
water,  and  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  tropical  regions  generally,  as  its  seeds  enter 
more  largely  into  their  nourishment  than  those  of  any 
other  plant.  Likewise  very  profitable  to  the  cultivator, 
as,  in  suitable  soils,  it  yields  three  crops  annually.  There 
is  a  relative  variety — the  Upland  or  Mountain  Rice. 
Grows  in  high  and  dry  places,  but  is  less  cultivated. 
The  aquatic  variety  is  one  of  the  staple  crops  of  South 
Carolina.  Arrack,  an  intoxicating  beverage  used  largely 
in  the  East  Indies,  is  a  liquor  prepared  by  fermentation 
and  distillation,  from  rice,  syrup  of  the  sugar  cane,  and 
sap  of  the  palm.  O- 

Millet  (Panicum  miliaceum)  is  distinguished  by  its 
loosely  constructed  panicle  ;  spikelets  rough  and  spiny, 
but  without  beards ;  grain  small  and  glossy.  Originally 
from  the  East  Indies ;  called  by  some  Bengal-grass ; 
cultivated  largely  in  Europe,  partly  as  an  article  of  food 
for  man,  but  mostly  employed  for  feeding  swine.  0. 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn  (Zea  mais).  Stalk  four  to 
eight  feet  high ;  leaves  two  feet  long  and  three  inches 
broad.  Believed  to  be  a  native  of  the  warmer  regions 
of  middle  America,  but,  transplanted  into  Europe,  is 
frequently  cultivated  in  South  Germany,  Hungary, 
Italy,  etc.  The  ears  or  spikes  stand  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  are  nearly  a  foot  long,  and  msasure  five  to  six 
inches  in  circumference.  Spikelets  arranged  in  numer- 
ous series  or  rows  on  the  cob.  When  corn  is  ripe,  the 
grains  are  bright  yellow  ;  there  are,  however,  other  va- 
rieties, where  they  are  white,  bluish,  and  red.  This 
cereal  contains  a  great  quantity  of  meal,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  of  the  Gramined,  and  serves  largely. 


PLANTS.  363 

in  the  nourishment  of  man,  animals,  and  poultry.  The 
upper  part  of  the  stem,  the  husks,  and  leaves,  cut  in  a 
green  state,  carefully  collected,  are  valuable  fodder  for 
milch  cows,  and  are  much  used  in  the  Middle  States  as 
such.  There  are  many  varieties,  all  differing  in  size  and 
in  the  amount  of  crop  they  yield.  O. 

Reed  Grass  (Arundo  phragmates).  Panicle  large 
and  loosely  expanded,  branching  horizontally ;  spikelets 
lance-linear ;  three  to  five-flowered ;  stem  six  to  eight 
feet  high  ;  grows  on  the  edges  of  swamps.  Leaves  long, 
very  sharp,  so  that  the  hand,  coming  in  contact  with 
them  is  easily  wounded.  Grows  in  the  borders  of  swamps, 
etc.  In  the  south  the  leaves  are  used  as  tiles  for  cover- 
ing roofs,  or  as  boards  for  ceiling  rooms.  The  stems 
serve  for  making  mouth-pieces  of  wind  instruments.  2£. 

The  Common  Bamboo  (Bambusa  arundinacese).  Pani- 
cle branching,  loose,  expanding  horizontally  ;  leaves 
large,  blue-green ;  is  the  tallest  of  all  the  grasses.  Na- 
tive of  East  and  West  Indies,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
pools.  Stalks  twenty  to  forty  feet  high,  nodose  (jointed), 
and,  like  the  common  reed,  is  hollow.  It  is  dangerous 
to  venture  into  a  thicket  of  bamboo,  as  such  places  are  a 
favorite  resort  of  snakes  and  other  venomous  reptiles. 
The  seed  is  used  in  the  East  Indies  for  feeding  horses. 
The  bamboo  reed  used  for  walking  canes  is  of  a  different 
genus  from  the  genuine  bamboo,  which  is  applied  to  a 
great  variety  of  purposes.  In  India  it  is  used  for  mak- 
ing boxes,  baskets,  tables,  chairs,  mats,  boats,  paper,  fences, 
etc.  The  thick  stems  are  used  for  beams  in  building. 
Wood  very  tough  when  sawed  across,  but  splits  or  works 
easily  lengthwise.  2£. 


364  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


SECOND  SUB-CLASS. — CRTPTOGAMOUS  PLANTS. 
(Class  24,  L.) 

Cryptogamous  plants  are  constituted  chiefly  of  cells  ; 
are  unprovided,  destitute  of  proper  flowers  (stamens  and 
pistils)  and  seemingly  without  a  germ,  are  propagated 
by  spores  instead  of  seeds.  "  Acrogenous  Plants. 

SlXTY-EIG  HTH  FAMILY. — HORSE-T AILS. — E  QUIS  ATA- 
CEM. — The  first  of  this  family  is 

The  Field  Horse  Tail  (Equisetum.  arvense).  Stems 
striped  and  grooved,  branching  ;  sterile  stem  nine  to 
fifteen  inches  high,  with  a  verticil  of  slender,  articu- 
lated branches  from  base  of  sheath  ;  fertile  stems,  ap- 
pearing first,  are  simple.  Grows  everywhere  in  Europe, 
in  fields,  ditches,  or  by  brook-sides ;  called  Shave  Grass. 

The  Scouring  Rush  (Equisetum  hyemale),  contain- 
ing much  silex,  is  used  for  scouring  and  polishing  tin 
ware ;  is  distinguished  from  E.  arvense  by  its  sharply 
angulate  stem  and  short  sheaths,  with  small,  blackish, 
deciduous  teeth  at  summit.  Much  used  by  cabinet-mak- 
ers in  polishing  furniture. 

SIXTY-NINTH  FAMILY.  —  LYCOPODIACE^E.  —  CLUB- 
MOSS  FAMILY. 

Club  Moss  (Lycopodium  clavatum),  stems  creeping  ; 
branches  short  and  ascending ;  leaves  long,  linear,  with 
an  extended  hair-like  point ;  arranged  in  fives  ;  form  a 
tuft  at  the  summit  of  the  branches.  Found  in  all  the 
mountain  forests  of  the  Vor-Alps  in  Europe  and  Asia, 
also  in  woodlands  and  thickets  in  North  America.  The 
fruit  of  this  plant  appears  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  mealy 
substance,  which  is  called  Witch  or  Vegetable  Sulphur ; 
of  little  use  excapt  for  theaters  or  amusing  children  by 


365 


setting  it  on  fire,  and  making  mimic  lightning,  which  can 
be  very  successfully  accomplished.  The  tree-like  Lyco- 
podhun  —  Ground  Pine,  much  used  for  trimming 
churches  at  Christmas,  is  nearly  related.  V . 

SEVENTIETH  FAMILY. — FILICES. — FERXS. 

Shield  Fern  or  Male  Wood  Fern  (Polipodium  filix 
mas).  This  plant,  common  alike  in  the  woods  of  Ger- 
many and  our  own  country,  has  large,  handsome  leaves, 
or  fronds,  doubly  pinnate,  with  round  fruit-dots  borne  on 
the  back  or  sometimes  on  the  extremity  of  the  veins, 
consist  of  a  fine  powder,  which  is  the  true  fruit  of  the 
plant.  The  root,  black  and  woody,  is  used  medicinally, 
as  it  contains  an  essential  oil  and  a  quantity  of  resinous 
substance,  which  is  considered  a  specific  for  destroying 
the  tape-worm. 

The  Maiden  Hair  (Adiantum  capillus  veneris),  leaves 
or  fronds  on  long  foot-stalks,  smooth,  doubly  pinnate, 
light  green;  pinnules,  or  leaflets,  recurved,  semi-oval, 
eared,  and  alternate  ;  fruit-dots  oblong,  occupying  the 
edge  or  margin  of  the  pinnae ;  foot-stalk  and  peduncular 
axis  glossy  and  brownish-black.  Grows  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  by  rocks  and  damp  walls  ;  is  used  medicinally. 
Syrup  of  Maiden  Hair,  formerly  much  in  vogue,  is  pre- 
pared from  this  plant.  K. 

A  great  variety  of  ferns  are  found  in  the  South,  some 
of  them  growing  to  an  almost  incredible  size.* 

*  The  tree  ferns  of  the  tropics,  the  stems  of  -which  are  often  erect, 
frequently  attain  a  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet.  They  are  said 
to  be  objects  of  incomparable  beauty,  their  straight,  unbranched  trunks 
often  rising  like  those  of  palms,  as  high  as  forty  or  fifty  feet  without 
a  leaf.— GRAY.— Tr. 


dbb  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

SECOND    DIVISION. 
CELLULAR     PLANTS.  —  ACROGENS. 

These  plants  (Acyotogamous  acrogens)  are  composed 
entirely  of  cellular  tissue,  and  •without  vessels  or  ducts, 
producing  spore-cases  or  capsules,  opening  by  a  terminal 
lid,  and  contain  simple  spores  only,  in  this  differing  from 
the  foi'egoing. 

FIRST  SUB-CLASS. — CELLULAR  PLANTS  WITH  LEAVES 

Possess  leaf-like  extensions  and  imperfectly  developed 
organs  of  fructification  ;  have  no  primary  root ;  the  axis 
growing  from  the  apex  only  has  no  provision  for  increase 
in  diameter  as  they  increase  in  age.  Acrogens — Acro- 
genous  Plants  (Greek  derivation)  means  that  they  grow 
from  the  apex  alone. 

SEVENTY-FIRST  FAMILY. — HEPATIC^E. — LIVERWORTS 
• — Are  small  moss-like  plants,  the  stem  and  leaves  form- 
ing or  confluent  into  an  expanded  leaf-like  mass. 

The  Marchanzie  or  Brook  Liverwort  (Marchantia 
polymorpha.)  has  large,  cellular  lobes,  resembling  oak- 
leaves  ;  common,  and  growing  beside  brooks,  springs,  or 
by  damp  walls.  Leaves  are  at  first  orbicular ;  first  year 
only  one  inch  long ;  calyptra  (hood)  opening  at  apex. 
Withers  on  the  spot  where  it  grew,  rooting  or  ramifying 
from  the  free  end.  2£ . 

SEVENTY-SECOND  FAMILY.  —  Musci.  —  HAIR  CAP 
Moss. 

YeHoiv  Maiden  Hair  (Polytrichum  commune).  This 
beautiful  moss  is  about  one  foot  high,  has  small  branches 


PLANTS.  367 

and  slender,  lanceolate  leaves  ;  capsule  yellow  and  purp- 
lish red.  Grows  in  moist  grounds,  mostly  in  damp 
woods.  Used  for  making  brushes,  and,  when  found 
abundantly,  for  filling  beds.  2£. 

SECOND  SUB-CLASS. — UNLEAVED  CELLULAR  PLANTS. 
THALLOPHYTES. 

These  vegetables,  called  Thallophytes,  from  their  pe- 
culiar conformation,  never  exhibit  any  distinction  of 
root,  stem  or  foliage,  axis  or  leaves,  and  are  without 
any  visible  indication  of  the  fructifying  principle.  The 
first  of  this  class  is  the 

SEVENTY-THIRD  FAMILY. — LICHENS,  which  are,  of 
all  vegetable  structures,  the  most  widely  spread.  Con- 
sisting of  flat  expansions,  rather  crustaceous  than  foliace- 
ous,  they  do  not,  like  other  plants,  require  earth  on 
which  to  root  or  draw  subsistence,  but  merely  a  place 
whereon  to  fasten  by  their  lower  surface,  while  by  the 
upper  they  draw  their  nourishment  directly  from  the 
air.  They  grow  on  every  brick,  stone,  or  naked  rock, 
upon  trunks  of  trees  in  endless  variety,  and  are  ever 
enduring.  The  most  conspicuous  of  the  race  is 

The  Iceland  Moss  (Cetraria  islandica),  grayish-green 
or  brown,  stands  upright,  spotted  red  on  the  lower  part. 
Leaves  irregularly  lobed  and  many -cleft ;  fruit  (or  what 
is  supposed  to  be  such)  flat  and  of  a  chestnut  brown. 
Grows  on  the  ground  in  dry,  mountainous,  open  places, 
also  in  pine  forests  ;  found  in  very  cold  countries,  as  Ice- 
land, Lapland,  etc.  Contains  a  great  deal  of  mucilage, 
starch,  and  a  bitter  principle — probably  tonic ;  forms  the 
chief  article  of  nourishment  of  rein-deer,  and  is  recom- 


db5  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

mended  as  a  strengthening  and  nutritious  diet  for  con- 
sumptives. 

The  Archil  Moss  (Roccella  tinctoria).  Branches  but 
little,  erect,  cylindrical,  gray-green.  Grows  abundantly 
on  the  cliffs  of  southern  Europe,  Azores,  arid  Canary 
Islands  :  contains  a  red  coloring  matter,  which,  on  the 
dry  plant  being  powdered,  discharges  itself  in  a  strong 
alkali.  Blue  is  also  obtained,  but  through  an  entirely 
different  process. 

SEVENTY-FOURTH  FAMILY. — ALG^;.  —  SEA- WEEDS. 
— KELP. — Consist  of  aquatic  plants,  found  mostly  in  the 
sea,  but  some  grow  in  humid  terrestrial  situations.  The 
highest  forms  are  the  proper  sea-weeds,  Wrack,  Tang, 
Dulse,  Tangle,  etc.,  which,  spreading  their  rank  luxu- 
riance through  the  water,  represent  extended  meadows. 

The  Bladder  Tang  (Fucus  vesiculosis),  leaves  often 
a  fathom  in  length,  banded  or  ribbed  an  inch  in  breadth ; 
on  the  stems  are  found  globular  cells,  which  are  filled 
with  air,  and  when  put  into  the  fire,  explode  with  a  noise 
like  a  pistol  shot.  Found  abundantly  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  also  in  the  eastern  and  northern  oceans  as  far 
as  Greenland ;  is  often  driven  by  heavy  floods  on  land, 
where  it  is  gathered,  dried,  and  used  as  bedding  straw 
for  cattle ;  boiled,  it  makes  good  food  for  hogs  ;  it  is  also 
burned  for  the  sake  of  its  ashes,  from  which  alkaline 
salts  (alkali),  containing  a  large  portion  of  iodine,  are 
made ;  therefore  the  sea  tang  is  very  useful,  although 
seemingly  a  weed. 

There  are  many  relative  species  of  Algoe.  several  of 
which,  when  dried,  resembling  coarse  hair,  are  used  to 
stuff  mattresses,  chairs,  etc."  It. 

*  The  Le&sonia  and  Macrosystis,  the  two  giants  of  the  Ocean  Flora, 
are  natives  of  the  Antarctic  seas.  Many  as  are  the  beautiful  varieties 


PLANTS.  369 

SEVENTY-FIFTH  FAMILY. — FUNGI. — MUSHROOMS — 
Are  pithy,  cellular  plants  of  various  forms,  which  spring 
forth  from  damp  soils  ;  the  rapidity  of  their  growth 
(accomplished  in  one  night,  for  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find  a  crop  of  mushrooms  in  the  morning  where  not  one 
was  to  be  seen  on  the  previous  evening)  is  proverbial. 
Many  of  the  race  have  a  hood  or  umbrella  seated  on  a 
slender  stem,  called  by  many  Witch  Caps.  Some  are 
fashioned  in  round  knobs,  others  consist  of  fine  branches. 
The  smallest  of  all  the  race  are  composed  of  very  fine, 
gray  filaments,  and  are  termed  Sohimmel  or  the  White 
Horse. 

Bufflst — Puff  Ball  (Lycoperdon  bovista)  consists 
only  of  a  leathery  sack  ;  grows  as  large  as  an  infant's 
head,  whitish  yellow,  ragged,  in  broad  scales :  when  ripe 
is  full  of  a  rust-colored  powder ;  when  unripe,  the  pith 
is  white  and  soft ;  at  that  time  is  fit  to  be  eaten.  Said 
to  be  very  palatable  when  roasted ;  also  used  officinally. 

The  Common  Truffle  (Tuber  cibarium).  Truffles  are 
nearly  globular,  firm  ;  tubers  about  the  size  of  a  walnut, 
and  blackish.  The  pulp  or  pith  consists  of  a  series  of 
fine  cells.  This  species  of  mushroom  is  hidden  under  the 
earth,  they  are  ripe  in  autumn,  when  they  have  a  pleasant 


•which  are  dredged  upon  from  the  rocks,  or  Avashed  ashore  by  the 
tides,  these  two  collossal  specimens  are  all  we  can  at  present  mention. 
The  Lessonia  is  an  arborescent  sea-weed,  with  a  trunk  of  concentric 
layers  altogether  timberlike,  but,  nevertheless,  incombustible.  The  Ma- 
crosystis  (mooredkelp)  instead  of  a  trunk  as  thick  as  a  common  cherry 
tree,  is  moored  to  the  rock  by  a  tough  but  slender  cable,  which,  rising 
to  the  surface,  breaks  into  leaves  and  streams  along  a  luxuriant  tangle 
for  several  hundred  feet,  is  at  once  the  buoy  and  breakwater  of  the 
dangerous  channels  where  it  finds  its  home.  The  Moored  Kelp  not 
only  warns  the  mariner  of  a  sunken  rock,  but  is  the  pasture-field  of 
countless  mollusks  or  crustaceans. — Tr. 
16* 


370  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

garlic-like  odor,  and  make  a  much-prized  article  of  food. 
They  are  not  easily  found,  therefore  dogs  are  trained  to 
seek  them,  which  they  do  by  smelling  on  the  earth. 
Hogs  are  very  fond  of  them  and  on  that  account  are  suf- 
fered to  root  at  pleasure  'in  the  neighborhood  where  they 
are  supposed  to  be,  as  they  are  sure  to  find  them.  2£ . 

The  Common  Moril  or  Edible  Mushroom  (Morchella 
esculenta),  plate  29,  fig.  1,  is  two  inches  in  length,  dark 
brown ;  cap  oval,  pointed :  grows  in  the  woods  here  and 
there,  and  is  eaten.  O. 

Coral-shaped  Moril  (Clavaria  coralloides),  plate  29, 
fig.  2,  fashioned  as  a  white  or  yellow  tuft,  which,  branch- 
ing very  beautifully  resembles  coral.  Comes  up  plenti- 
fully after  rain,  and  is  eatable.  O. 

The  following  belong  to  the  genuine  Agariceae  : 

Stone  Moril  (Boletus  edulis),  Plate  29,  fig.  3  ;  stem 
six  inches  long,  fleshy,  red,  which  is  surmounted  by  the 
cap  or  umbrella,,  five  inches  in  breadth,  smooth  and 
brown,  and  consisting  on  the  lower  surface  of  a  number 
of  roundish  tubes,  which  are  at  first  white,  afterwards 
yellowish,  and,  at  last,  turn  green.  Tastes  like  hazel- 
nuts,  and  frequently  used  as  a  table  dish.  O- 

The  Chantrelle  (Cantharellus  cibareus"),  plate  29, 
fig.  4,  5,  is  about  two  inches  high,  yellow ;  cap  smooth, 
fleshy,  diffuse,  and  sloping.  Grows  in  the  pine  woods  of 
Europe,  and  is  generally  used  as  food.  O. 

The  Oronge  (Agaricus  campestris),  plate  29,  fig.  6,  7. 
Stem  white,  surmounted  by  an  umbrella-shaped  cap  of 
fleshy  consistence  and  silk-like  interior ;  the  inferior  sur- 
face is  lined  with  a  brown,  sporiferous  membrane  or  kind 
of  lappets.  Found  in  fields  throughout  the  summer, 
and  is  the  most  esteemed  and  best -flavored  of  the  Agaric 
race  ;  known  in  Europe  as  the  Champignon.  Q. 


PLANTS.  371 

The  Imperial  or  Golden  Agaric  (Amanita  caesarea), 
plate  20.  fig.  8,  9,  one  of  the  handsomest  and  best  pro- 
portioned of  the  mushroom  family,  has  a  hollow,  yellow 
stalk  about  six  inches  high,  with  a  smooth,  yellow  ring, 
and  issuing  from  a  white  valva  or  "wrapper.  Cap  from 
four  to  six  inches  in  breadth,  is  glossy,  gold-colored,  and 
umbrella-shaped ;  sometimes  covered  with  white  warts  ; 
has  one  broad,  sulphur-colored  leaf,  bordered  with  one 
stripe.  Found  abundantly  in  the  chestnut  woods  in  the 
south  of  France  and  Italy,  mostly  in  autumn ;  considered 
very  excellent.  Fig.  9  is  a  representation  of  the  young 
plant,  which,  from  its  likeness  to  an  egg,  receives  the 
name  of  the  Egg  Mushroom. 

Nearly  all  the  Agarics,  properly  so-called,  are  in  Eu- 
rope esteemed  as  good  and  wholesome  food,  and  growing, 
especially  in  wet  seasons,  so  abundantly  in  woods  and 
meadows,  it  seems  almost  to  be  regretted  that  they  are  so 
little  used.  This  proceeds  from  want  of  a  proper  know- 
ledge of  their  true  nature,  and  therefore,  as  there  are 
many  of  them  poisonous  and  closely  resemble  the  edible 
species,  persons  are  afraid  of  mistaking  one  for  the 
other.  The  difference,  however,  between  the  true  and 
the  false  is  easy  of  acquisition.  Those  which  change 
color  quickly  after  being  gathered,  or  of  a  soft,  watery 
structure,  have  a  peppery,  bitter,  astringent  taste  and 
disagreeable  odor,  ought  invariably  to  be  rejected.  The 
edible  mushrooms  have  a  fresh,  earth-like  smell,  and  in 
taste  resemble  hazel-nuts,  and  even  these  must  be  care- 
fully selected,  as  some  among  them,  although  not  actually 
poisonous,  contain  an  acrimonious  juice,  and  when  eaten, 
are  attended  with  unpleasant  consequences.  In  order  to 
be  secure  from  such  effects,  all  mushrooms  previously 
selected  and  cleansed  ought  to  be  tied  up  in  a  thick  cloth 


372  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

and  put  into  an  earthen  jar,  placed  on  a  moderately  warm 
hearth.  After  remaining  thus  for  half  an  hour,  the 
cloth  will  be  found  to  have  absorbed  much  of  the  juice, 
Avhich  is  largely  exuded  by  this  simple  process  ;  the  cloth 
still  containing  the  mushrooms  must  now  be  well  wrung, 
and  the  mushrooms,  freed  entirely  from  their  juices,  are 
now  ready  for  the  different  modes  of  preparation  in  which 
they  are  used,  either  for  an  every  day  dish  or  as  a  condi- 
ment for  meats.  They  are  often  collected  and  kept  for 
winter  use.  The  mode  of  preparing  them  is  the  same 
as  has  just  been  described.  After  the  juice  or  watery 
portion  has  all  been  pressed  out,  they  are  strung  on  cords 
and  dried  either  in  the  sun  or  a  bake-oven.  Any  one 
who  does  not  shun  taking  a  little  trouble,  might,  in  his 
common  walk  through  the  woods,  learn  to  recognize  the 
nature  of  these  despised  plants,  and  having  done  so, 
would  find  himself  repaid,  not  only  by  the  interesting 
study,  but  also  by  the  acquisition  of  a  wholesome  and 
palatable  dish. 


INDIGENOUS    POISONOUS    PLANTS. 

Poisonous  plants  are  divided  into  two  kinds,  acrid  and 
narcotic,  founded  upon  the  difference  of  their  operations, 
although  both  are  attended  with  the  same  deadly  effect. 
Some,  however,  possess  the  principles  belonging  to  both, 
therefore,  in  their  effect,  they  are  said  to  be  sharp  or 
acrid  narcotics.  The  most  prominent  specimens  of  the 
simply  acrid  poisonous  plants  are  the  Arum,  Savin,  and 
Spurge  Laurel;  gimply  narcotic.  Henbane,  Deadly 


PLANTS.  373 

Nightshade,  Aconite ;  of  the  acrid  narcotic,  Monk's 
Hood,  Hemlock,  Tobacco,  Digitalis,  and  Stramonium 
Apple. 

The  symptoms  attending  the  operations  of  the  simply 
sharp  or  acrid  poisons  are  commonly  pain,  inflammation, 
and  redness  of  the  throat,  difficulty  of  swallowing,  great 
nausea  and  thirst,  in  short  there  is  a  general  disturbance 
of  the  whole  system.  When  the  operation  is  at  its  full 
height,  the  face  is  pale  and  the  features  sunken,  and  ex- 
pressive of  great  anxiety  ;  the  eyes  are  surrounded  with 
blue  circles,  the  breath  is  short,  the  voice  fails,  cold 
sweats  and  faintings  ensue,  and,  with  slight  convulsions, 
death  ends  the  scene. 

The  operation  of  the  narcotic  poisons  is  different  ; 
heaviness  of  the  head,  dimness  of  sight,  deafness,  giddi- 
ness, stupor,  delirium,  often  very  violent ;  the  face  is 
sometimes  inflamed,  at  others  very  pale ;  the  eyes  have  a 
fixed  and  vacant  look,  the  pupils  at  intervals  dilated  or 
sunken,  and  the  pulses  of  the  neck  and  brow  are  very 
full  and  quick ;  cramp  of  the  muscles,  spasms,  tetanus ; 
in  short,  a  general  paralysis  ensues,  which  only  ends 
when  death  comes,  which,  in  such  cases,  is  mostly  with 
convulsions  or  apoplexy.  As  nausea  is  seldom  present, 
therefore  emetics  are  not  only  useless,  but  hard  to  bring 
into  operation.  The  plan  of  treatment  in  either  case 
must  be  modified  according  to  the  nature  of  the  poison 
and  symptoms  of  the  case,  as  well  as  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  constitution  to  be  operated  upon.  Many 
remedies  are  resorted  to  for  counteracting  the  effect  of 
the  poison,  but  as  it  is  best  to  resort  to  medical  aid  at 
once,  we  shall  only  suggest  a  few  domestic  simples, 
which  can  be  used  in  cases  where  a  physician  can  not  be 
had  at  once.  In  the  first  stage,  warm  water,  plentifully 


374  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

mixed  with  melted  butter  or  salad  oil,  has  a  good  effect, 
and  new  milk  is  especially  useful.  Decoctions  of  muci- 
laginous plants,  slippery  elm  bark,  ground  ivy,  barley 
water,  mingled  with  something  astringent  as  oak  bark, 
tormentilla  root,  come  next ;  afterwards  applications  of 
ice  to  the  head,  leeches  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and 
sometimes  general  bleeding  is  sufficient  for  the  removal 
of  the  poison,  but  it  is  always  safer  in  cases  of  poison- 
ing from  vegetables,  to  have  recourse  to  medical  treat- 
ment than  to  trust  to  simples,  however  judiciously  ad- 
ministered. 

Aaron's  Root  (Arum  maculatum),  known  by  the 
common  name  of  Indian  Turnip,  has  an  oblong,  turnip- 
shaped  root ;  leaves  in  pairs,  arrow-shaped,  and  on  long 
petioles  or  foot-stalks  ;  stem  shorter  than  the  leaf-stalks ; 
flowers  separate,  seated  here  and  there  on  the  dark 
brown  stem,  like  those  of  the  well  known  calla,  and  have 
the  appearance  of  small  fruit,  wherefore  children  are 
fond  of  gathering  them  to  play  with.  Grows  in  damp, 
shady  places  in  woods  and  thickets ;  occasionally  found 
in  meadows.  Blooms  in  April  or  May.  The  root  called 
Cormus,  is  very  acrid,  and,  if  not  exactly  poisonous,  is 
very  severe  in  its  operation  and  productive  of  serious 
injury;  however,  that  quality  is  dissipated  in  a  gi*eat 
measure  by  boiling  or  drying.  When  eaten  in  a  fresh 
state,  the  best  remedy  against  its  painful  effect  is,  as  it 
is  also  in  all  cases  of  acrid  poisons,  milk  in  which  raw 
eggs  have  been  mixed.  2£. 

The  Mandrake — May  Apple  (Atropa  mandragora). 
Root  long,  thick,  forked,  cylindrical,  and  yellowish- 
brown  ;  stem  one  or  two-leaved  at  summit ;  leaves  large, 
round,  seven  or  nine-lobed,  lanceolate,  peltate,  and 
slightly  haired  below  ;  flower  situated  in  the  fork  of  the 


PLANTS.  875 

petioles,  large,  yellowish-white,  somewhat  downy ;  fruit, 
a  large,  yellow,  fleshy  berry,  ovoid,  and  filled  with  num- 
erous kidney-shaped,  dark  brown  seeds ;  grows  in  woods ; 
fruit  ripens  in  July,  slightly  acid  and  maukish,  eaten  by 
pigs  and  boys.  The  mandrake  is  found  abundantly  in 
southern  Europe,  and  in  the  days  of  early  superstition, 
the  forked  root,  supposed  to  possess  magical  power,  was 
used  in  sorcery  or  divination.  Belongs  to  the  class  of 
acrid  narcotic  poisons — the  root  and  leaves  only,  for  the 
fruit  is  innocuous  ;  its  effect  and  operation  much  resem- 
ble that  of  Belladonna. 

Black  Henbane  (Hyoscyamus  niger),  plate  30,  fig.  5. 
Stem  erect,  branching ;  a  clammy,  pubescent  plant,  fetid 
and  narcotic  ;  leaves  oblong,  angled,  lobate,  and  toothed. 
Flowers  (corolla)  pale  yellow,  strongly  veined  with  dark 
purple,  increasingly  dark  towards  the  bottom.  Very  poison- 
ous, grows  in  rubbish  heaps,  in  hedges,  and  by  road-sides; 
blooms  in  May  and  August.  Every  part  of  this  plant 
is  pervaded  with  an  acrid  narcotic  principle,  which  is 
equally  strong  in  leaf,  flower,  stem,  etc.  If  eaten,  its 
operation  is  very  severe,  producing  headache,  stupor, 
nausea,  deafness,  insensibility,  and,  at  last,  convulsions. 
Simple  emetics  are  given,  often  successfully,  doses  of 
vinegar  and  lemon  juice  are  common  remedies  used 
against  its  poisonous  influence,  and  acidulated  drinks,  it 
is  said,  seldom  fail  to  counteract  it  <3  . 

Herb  Christopher  (Actaea  spicata).  called  Cohos/i  or 
Baneberry  in  United  States.  Root  annulate  and  many- 
headed.  But  diametrically,  the  wood  presents  a  star- 
like  circle  with  obtuse  rays.  Stem  naked,  smooth,  about 
two  feet  in  height ;  leaves  one  foot  long,  large,  three- 
lobed,  compound,  glossy  green  •  leaflets  long,  sharply 
cleft,  downy  on  under  surface ;  flowers  white,  hang  five 


376  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

to  ten  in  terminal  tufts.  Fruit  oblong  and  many-seeded. 
Grows  in  rich  damp  woods  and  bushy  hills,  both  in  Eu- 
rope and  America  ;  is  an  acrid  narcotic. 

Wolfs  Bane  (Paris  Quadrifolia),  plate  31,  fig.  6. 
Grows  in  damp  places,  shady  woods,  and  mountain  re- 
gions. Stem  erect ;  leaves  oblong,  acuminate,  notched 
at  the  apex.  Flowers  blue,  helmet-shaped,  spring  from 
the  axils  of  the  leaves  ;  fruit,  a  berry,  resembles  a  small 
cherry,  and  tastes  like  wine.  Very  poisonous,  creates 
cramp  in  the  stomach,  to  which  succeeds  stupor  and  de- 
lirium ;  destroys  life  by  producing  gastric  inflammation 
Milk  and  mucilaginous  articles,  as  slippery  elm,  barley- 
water,  sweet  oil,  etc.,  ought  to  be  administered  promptly 
until  medical  aid  can  be  procured.  It. 

Monkshood — Aconite — (Aconitum  napellus),  plate  80, 
fig.  3.  Leaves  glossy,  deeply  three-cleft ;  flowers  purred, 
blue,  bloom  in  terminal  spikes,  and  surmounted  by  the 
vaulted  upper  leaflet ;  bears  much  resemblance  to  a  monk's 
cowl.  Grows  mostly  on  wooded  hills  or  deep  valleys  ; 
blooms  in  June  and  August ;  also  cultivated  on  account  of 
its  beauty  as  an  ornament  in  gardens.  Every  part  of  the 
Aconite  is  poisonous.  Even  the  leaves,  if  rubbed  between 
the  fingers,  have  a  disgusting  odor,  and  an  acrid,  nauseat- 
ing taste.  Sleeping  in  the  neighborhood  of  these  plants 
is  considered  dangerous,  especially  if  a  number  of  them 
are  together.  Taken  inwardly,  their  poison,  in  the  first 
stage,  creates  vomiting,  giddiness,  delirium  ;  coldness  of 
the  extremities  and  raging  fever  next  ensue,  and  lastly 
death  comes  and  the  scene  closes  with  convulsions.  Bees 
cluster  around  the  flowers,  and  suck  honey  from  their 
cells  without  injury  to  themselves  ;  nevertheless,  the 
honey,  if  gathered  in  any  quantity  from  these  plants,  is 
poisonous,  and  examples  are  not  wanting  of  persons  who 


PLANTS.  377 

have  died  from  eating  it.  The  remedies  mentioned  above, 
namely,  acids  and  mucilaginous  drinks,  are  also  proper 
antidotes  to  the  poison  of  Aconite,  it  • 

Foxglove  (Digitalis  purpurea),  plate  31,  fig.  5.  Leaves 
oblong,  wrinkled,  crenate,  recurved  ;  the  under  side 
downy ;  flowers  numerous,  arranged  around  a  long,  simple 
spike  ;  crimson,  often  white,  with  beautiful  eye-like  spots 
within  the  throat,  Native  of  Europe,  where  it  grows  on 
high  hills,  and  a  well  known,  showy  border  flower  of 
easy  culture,  but  much  more  beautiful  in  its  wild  state 
than  when  cultivated  in  gardens.  The  fresh  leaves,  if 
bruised  in  the  fingers,  have  a  most  disagreeable  odor,  and 
a  mawkish,  acrid,  bitter  taste.  The  whole  plant  is  a 
violent  and  dangerous  poison ;  when  taken  in  considerable 
quantities,  producing  delirium,  convulsions,  and  death. 
Its  peculiar  action  on  the  heart  is  well  known,  and 
although  possessing  such  dangerous  properties,  in  the 
hands  of  the  judicious  physician  it  becomes  a  valuable 
medicine,  acting  as  a  sedative,  etc.  Acids,  such  as 
lemon  juice  and  vinegar,  mingled  with  mucilages,  as 
barley  water,  etc.,  may  be  used  advantageously  until 
medical  aid  can  be  obtained.  It . 

The  Toad-stool  (Agaricus  muscarius),  plate  30,  fig.  4. 
Cap,  or  umbrella,  bright  red,  covered  with  white  worts, 
which  are  the  fragments  of  the  ruptured  envelopes  of  the 
sporules.  Its  leaf  or  leaves  are  white,  clustered  near 
the  top  of  the  stem,  which  is  four  inches  high  and  one  in 
diameter.  Grows  everywhere  in  the  woods,  and  is  one 
of  the  handsomest  of  the  Agarics.  Sometimes  it  is  of  a 
light  citron  color,  and  therefore  may  easily  be  mistaken 
for  the  much  esteemed  Golden  Agaric:  the  stem  and 
leaves,  however,  form  a  distinctive  mark,  those  of  the 
toad-stool  being  white,  those  of  the  imperial  yellow. 


378  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Toad-stools  have  n.o  particular  odor  or  taste ;  neverthe- 
less they  are  very  dangerous,  and  their  poisonous  effect  is 
immediately  apparent.  In  an  hour  or  two  after  being 
eaten,  the  throat  swells,  breathing  becomes  difficult,  cold 
sweats,  faintings,  convulsions,  spasms,  sometimes  dilirium  ; 
in  short,  there  is  a  general  disturbance  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem, and  in  twelve  to  forty-eight  hours,  death  ends  the 
suffering.  A  post-mortem  examination  shows  inflamma- 
tion of  the  stomach  and  an  extravasation  of  blood  on  the 
brain.  In  poisonings  from  this  species  of  Agarics,  an 
emetic  ought  to  be  administered  as  promptly  as  possible  ; 
lukewarm  water,  in  which  melted  butter,  or  sweet  oil,  is 
mixed  is  also  proper.  If  attended  with  much  pain,  mucil- 
aginous drinks — flaxseed  tea,  etc., — and  warm  milk  should 
be  given  freely,  and  cataplasms  applied  to  the  stomach. 
There  are  other  symptoms,  requiring  other  remedies, 
which  come  immediately  under  the  care  of  a  physician, 
by  whom  they  can  only  be  safely  administered.  The 
treatment  in  all  cases  of  poisoning  from  vegetables  is 
nearly  the  same.  Some  persons  use  this  toad-stool, 
boiled  in  milk,  to  kill  flies ;  it  is,  however,  a  dangerous 
practice.  Nevertheless,  the  Kamschatdales  prepare  an 
exciting  liquor  from  it,  with  which  they  intoxicate  them- 
selves to  a  certain  degree.  G. 

Puff-ball  (Phallus  impudicus),  plate  31,  fig.  2.  A 
mushroom,  about  a  span  long,  and  as  thick  as  a  thumb  ; 
overgrown  with  a  green,  slimy  substance.  Grows  in 
shady  forests,  mostly  hidden  in  thickets :  its  presence, 
however,  can  be  detected,  even  from  a  distance,  by  its 
disgusting  odor.  The  ball  explodes  with  a  noise  resem- 
bling a  pistol  shot.  Many  of  the  3Iusca>  tribe  seek  it. 
and  deposit  their  eggs  upon  its  surface.  It  is  altogether 


PLANTS.  379 

so  disgusting,  that,  although  highly  poisonous,  its  bad 
effects  are  rarely  found  necessary  to  bs  combated.  Q . 

The  Wild  or  Poison  Lettuce—  Trumpet— Milkweed 
— (Lactua  virosa),  much  resembles  the  L.  sativa  or  Gar- 
den Lettuce  ;  lower  leaves  clasping  the  stem  horizontally, 
upper  arrow-shaped ;  flowers  yellow,  in  spreading  pani- 
cles. Grows  rankly  beside  stone  walls,  and  in  hedges ; 
stalk  hollow,  stout,  three  to  five  feet  high ;  flowers  open 
only  in  the  morning.  Whole  plant  has  a  most  unpleasant 
odor ;  if  eaten,  tastes  acrid  and  bitter.  Its  poison  pro- 
duces stupor ;  symptoms  resembling  those  produced  by 
hemlock.  The  same  remedies  are  proper  Used  medi- 
cinally as  a  sedative.  O. 

Poison  Oak,  or  Sumach  (Rhus  radicans).  Leaves 
oval,  oblong,  abruptly  acuminate;  blooms  in  racemous 
axillary  panicles ;  flowers,  androgynous,  divided ;  color 
yellowish-green ;  stem  sometimes  six  feet  high,  according 
to  species,  at  others  climbing  thirty  to  forty  feet,  by  means 
of  radicating  tendrils,  which  fasten  themselves  on  trees, 
etc.*  Every  part  of  this  plant  contains  an  acrid  resin 
very  poisonous  to  the  taste  or  touch,  even  tainting  the 
air  to  some  distance  around  with  its  pernicious  effluvium, 
so  that  in  damp  weather  many  persons  become  poisoned 
by  it  merely  from  passing  or  by  remaining  a  short  time 
in  its  neighborhood.  In  such  cases  the  skin  becomes 
inflamed  and  covered  with  an  eruption,  mostly  attended 
with  painful  swellings.  The  best  remedies  are  simple 
sudorifics,  such  as  decoctions  of  elderberry  flowers  and 
acids,  or  local  applications  of  dry  heat.  Cooling  washes, 

*  The  climbing  variety,  Poison  Ivy,  is  the  proper  Rhus  radicans 
(the  Poison  Sumach,  called  in  the  United  States  Rhus  vencrata)  and 
the  Poison  Oak  (Rhus  toxicodendron)  are  the  erect  variety.  All  are 
more  or  less  poisonous. —  Wood. — Tr. 


380  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

such  as  sour  cream,  etc..  are  sometimes  employed  for  the 
inflamed  parts. 

Hedge  Hysop  (Gratiola  officinalis).  Root  limbed  and 
creeping ;  stem  four  to  eight  inches  long,  decumbent  or 
oblique ;  leaves  somewhat  clasping,  varying  from  lance- 
oblong  to  spatula te,  and  toothed,  are  dark  green  above,  paler 
below ;  flowers  composed  of  four  petals,  pale  rose  color  in 
a  yellow  calyx ;  seed  small,  oblong,  contained  in  an  ovoid 
capsule :  taste  bitter,  long  enduring,  nauseating ;  plant 
altogether  poisonous,  is  capable  of  doing  great  injury, 
but  proves  a  valuable  medicine  if  judiciously  employed. 

The  Meadow  Saffron  (Colchicum  autumnale),  plate 
30,  fig.  2,  is  a  weed  found  abundantly  in  moist  meadows ; 
the  last  ornament  of  autumn,  its  pale  red,  crocus-like 
flowers  may  be  seen  raising  their  blooming  heads  above 
the  brown  and  faded  grass.  Stem  a  span  in  length  ; 
leaves  broad,  lanceolate,  and  erect  ;  plant  a  biennial, 
bearing  seed  the  second  year ;  seed-cell  or  capsule  re- 
sembles the  udder  of  a  cow,  wherefore  it  is  often  called 
the  Cow's  Udder  plant.  Often  gathered  by  the  country 
people  for  dyeing  Easter-eggs  ;  color  a  beautiful  gray. 
Every  part  of  the  plant  is  poisonous,  producing  severe 
pain,  gastric  inflammation,  and  finally  delirium  and 
death.  Milk,  raw  eggs,  barley  water,  sugar,  or  other 
soothing  demulcents  are  the  remedies  recommended  to  be 
employed  in  this  case.  $  . 

Doy's  Parsley — Doy's  Bane  (^Ethusa  cynapium), 
plate  31,  fig.  4.  Leaves  tripinnate  and  much  dissected, 
resembling  those  of  the  common  parsley ;  distinguished, 
however,  by  being  glossy  and  of  a  darker  green,  but  it  i.s 
more  easy  to  be  detected  by  the  nauseating  garlic-like 
odor  it  sends  forth  on  being  rubbed.  Root  cylindrical, 
white,  and  branching ;  blooms  in  umbelliferous  tufts. 


PLANTS.  381 

Its  poison  operates  like  that  of  hemlock,  therefore  the 
same  antidotes  are  proper. 

Pasque  Flower  (Pulsatilla  vulgaris)  has  a  brown, 
branching,  and  fibrous  root,  radiating  everywhere ;  leaves 
lateral  divisions  two-parted,  middle  one  stalked  and  three- 
parted;  segments  deeply- cleft  into  narrow,  linear,  and 
acute  lobes ;  dark  green  above,  light  green  and  pubescent 
below.  Stem  hirsute,  bears  a  violet-colored  flower,  com- 
posed of  six  sepals,  bell-shaped  and  rough  on  the  out- 
side, developed  before  the  leaves.  Akenes  of  fruit  num- 
erous, densely  clothed  with  soft,  silky  hairs  and  provided 
with  long,  feathery  tails,  forming  a  tassel.  Found  in 
Europe  on  sunny  slopes,  also  on  the  prairies  of  Wiscon- 
sin, etc.  Receives  its  name  because  it  is  in  bloom  at 
Easter  ;  is  an  acrid  poison. 

The  Agarick  (Polyporus  laricis)  has  a  cork-like, 
fleshy,  smooth  cap  or  hood  with  yellow  and  brown  circles. 
Smells  like  newly-ground  flour,  and  has  a  bitter  taste. 
A  drug  used  in  physic  and  for  dyeing.  It  is  both  male 
and  female  ;  the  male  grows  on  oaks,  the  female  on 
larches.  Is  poisonous,  but  not  deadly,  although  its 
operation  is  drastic  and  most  distressing  and  alarming. 
Remedies  the  same :  mucilaginous  and  demulcent  drinks. 

The  Deadly  Nightshade  (Solanum  nigrum).  Native 
of  Europe,  where  it  grows  abundantly ;  a  somewhat 
shrubby  and  climbing  plant ;  leaves  ovate,  wavy-toothed ; 
flowers  very  small,  purple,  in  umbel-like  lateral  clusters  ; 
berries  globular  and  black.  Grows  on  moist  banks,  rub- 
bish-heaps, and  in  gardens.  Its  poison  creates  severe 
colics  and  deafness.  Raw  eggs,  milk,  etc.,  and,  in  some 
cases,  bloodletting,  are  the  usual  remedies.  O. 

Black  Hellebore  (Helleborus  niger).  Radical  leaves 
of  this  plant  are  lanceolate,  from  seven  to  nine-cleft, 


382  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

and  notched  toward  the  points ;  flowers  expanding,  white, 
turns  reddish  when  fading ;  stem  about  nine  inches  high, 
grows  in  southern  Europe  on  the  wooded  mountains  ; 
sometimes,  nay,  frequently,  planted  in  gardens.  The 
root  about  as  large  as  a  finger,  is  black  outside  but  white 
within ;  has  an  acrid,  bitter  taste.  Poison  virulent, 
very  drastic,  bringing  on  a  general  disturbance  of  the 
system,  which,  at  last,  terminates  in  convulsions  and 
death.  U .  Leeches  applied  to  the  abdomen  and  muci- 
lages with  plenty  of  vinegar,  are  the  usual  remedies 
against  the  poison  of  Hellebore.  The  Hellebore  viridis 
and  Hellebore  fcetidus  are  relatives.  The  following 
plant,  is,  however,  of  a  different  family. 

The  White  Hellebore  or  Sneezewort  (Veratum  al- 
bum), popularly  known  as  Indian  Poke.  Leaves  ovate, 
lanceolate,  strongly  veined  and  furrowed ;  the  lowest 
nearly  a  foot  long  and  about  a  hand's  breadth  wide  ; 
stem  about  three  feet  high,  and  pithy  inside.  Flowers 
numerous,  green,  in  many  axillary  racemes,  which,  to- 
gether form  a  pyramidal,  terminal  panicle.  Root  white 
and  spotted,  is  said  to  possess  active  properties,  and  em- 
ployed medicinally.  Emetic  and  stimulant,  but  poison- 
ous, it  should  be  used  with  caution.  When  powdered,  it 
causes  violent  sneezing.*  If. 

Water  Dropwort — Coicbane  (OEnanthe  fistulosa), 
also  called  Swamp  Parsley.  Root  long,  fibrous  ;  stem 
one  to  three  feet  high,  erect,  stiff,  striate,  smooth ;  radi- 
cal leaves  pinnately  divided ;  leaflets  three  to  eleven ; 


*  Our  readers  must  not  confound  this  -with  the  common  Poke  Weed, 
or  Pigeon  Berry  (Phytolaeca  decandria).  The  first  belongs  to  the 
MclancthacezE,  which  is  generally  pervaded  by  drastic,  narcotic,  and 
poisonous  qualities,  which  are  most  powerful  in  Yeratrum  and  Col- 
chicum. — WOOD. — TV. 


PLANTS.  383 

stem  leaves  simply  pinnate.  Flowers  numerous,  yellow- 
ish-red, umbelliferous,  oblong.  Fruit  fleshy,  globular, 
and  greenish.  Swamp  Parsley  is  found  everywhere  in 
Europe  as  a  marsh  perennial ;  grows  in  swamps  or  stag- 
nant waters.  A  coarse  plant  and  very  poisonous,  the 
root  particularly. 

Wafer  Hemlock  or  Spotted  Cowbane  (Cicuta  macu- 
lata),  found  in  the  swampa  of  the  northern  states,  and 
called  Musquash  Root  or  Beaver  Poison,  is  a  coarse 
plant  with  white  flowers  ;  very  common.  Root  a  deadly 
poison. 

The  Ranunculus  or  Cursed  Crow  Foot  (Ranunculus 
scelerata)  are  coarse,  creeping  plants,  with  a  knotty 
stem  and  yellow  flowers,  often  called  Butter  Cups. 
Found  either  in  wet  places  or  neglected  pasture  fields, 
which  they  injure  by  spreading  over  the  ground,  and, 
like  strawberry  vines,  rooting  at  the  joints.  It  is  there- 
fore a  diificult  matter  to  eradicate  them.  All  the  ranun- 
culus (a  large  family,  mostly  of  acrid  plants)  contain  a 
poisonous  juice,  the  operative  element  of  which  is  fugi- 
tive and  thrown  off  in  boiling ;  therefore,  as  they  are 
seldom  eaten  without  being  cooked,  cases  of  persons 
being  injured  by  them  are  extremely  rare.  They  are 
almost  universally  poisonous  to  sheep,  and  the  species 
we  have  just  been  describing,  is  particularly  so.  The 
stem  of  the  Ranunculus  sselerata  is  one  foot  high,  rigid 
and  many-leaved.  Leaves  three-lobed ;  flowers  small 
and  pale-yellow ;  juice  blistering ;  is  an  acrid  narcotic 
poison.  Found  also  in  America  in  marshy  grounds.  ZC . 

The  Hog  Mushroom  (Boletus  luridus).  Stem  fleshy, 
rather  swelled  at  the  base ;  hood  or  umbrella  vaulted 
and  cushion-like,  leathery,  and  of  various  colors,  whitish 
or  pale-yellow,  grayish -green,  olive,  brown  or  bright  red. 


384  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  sporules  produced  at  the  free  summit  of  the  cells 
are  at  their  openings  of  different  shades  of  color,  varying 
from  vermilion  to  purplish-red.  Found  singly,  mostly 
in  thickets  or  under  hedges,  in  woods,  etc.  An  acrid 
narcotic  poison,  very  drastic  in  its  operations,  creating 
inflammation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

The  Hemlock  (Conium  maculatum),  plate  31,  fig.  3. 
Stem  smooth,  branching,  reddish-brown  and  spotted ; 
leaflets  lanceolate,  pinnatifid ;  root  turnip-shaped,  single, 
branching,  white ;  height  about  six  feet ;  distinguished 
partly  by  its  brown  spots,  and  partly  by  the  peculiarly 
dark  green  color  of  the  leaves.  Tastes  exceedingly  dis- 
agreeable and  smells  worse  ;  its  effects  are  stupefying. 
At  first  excitement  attended  with  headache,  and  soon 
after  followed  with  severer  symptoms  ;  the  fatal  symptoms 
of  its  operations  become  every  moment  more  apparent. 
Difficulty  of  swallowing,  loss  of  sight  and  hearing,  cold- 
ness and  paralysis  of  the  extremities  come  next,  and, 
last  of  all,  convulsions  and  death.  This  plant  is  the 
more  dangerous  as  its  root  is  so  like  that  of  the  parsnip 
that  it  may  readily  be  mistaken  for  it ;  planted  in  a  gar- 
den, it  loses  its  spots  and  then  resembles  parsley,  never- 
theless the  seed  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  that  of 
the  latter  as  it  is  furrowed  transversely.  The  same 
remedies  used  as  recommended  in  poisoning  by  the  aga- 
rics, namely,  mucilages  plentifully  mingled  with  lemon 
juice  or  vinegar.  $  . 

Spurge  Laurel  (Daphne  mezereum)  is  a  small  bush  ; 
leaves  lanceolate,  deciduous,  arranged  in  terminal  tufts  ; 
flowers  beautiful  pink  color,  sessile ;  about  three  are  pro- 
duced from  each  lateral  bud :  very  fragrant ;  berries 
bright  red.  A  beautiful  European  shrub ;  blooms  in 
February.  Found  in  the  mountain  forests.  The  whole 


PLANTS.  385 

plant,  but  especially  the  bark,  is  an  acrid  poison,  and  so 
penetrating,  that  smelling  a  flower  will  cause  inflamma- 
tion of  the  nostrils.  The  berries  are  very  dangerous,  if 
eaten,  very  drastic  and  creating  cramp  of  the  stomach. 
The  same  treatment  recommended  for  other  vegetable 
poisons,  milk,  raw  eggs,  etc.,  is  proper.  2J!. 

The  Savin  Tree  (Juniperus  sabina),  a  slender,  ever- 
green shrub,  arboreous,  sending  out  numerous  horizontal 
branches,  growing  from  eight  to  twelve  feet  high.  Root 
woody,  consisting  of  one  strong,  radical  spike  ;  wood  of 
trunk  red,  fine-graiiied,  and  very  hard.  Leaves  spicate, 
resembling  sharp-pointed  needles  dark  green  above,  blue- 
green  below,  angular,  channeled  on  the  mid-vein  above, 
heeled  below;  arranged  in  whorls  of  three  to  five  to 
eight  seconds  on  the  ends  of  the  twigs,  they  give  the 
tree  a  beautiful  appearance.  Flowers  very  small,  seated 
in  terminal  aments ;  the  fertile  in  oblong  catkins.  Fruit 
small,  round,  bluish-black  berries,  ripening  the  second 
year.  Grows  wild,  but  often  planted  in  ornamental 
grounds  for  sake  of  its  beauty.  The  whole  shrub,  but 
especially  the  leaves,  has  a  disagreeable  aromatic  odor 
and  an  acrid  spicy  taste  ;  any  portion  eaten  is  poisonous, 
producing  inflammation  of  the  bowels  and  other  distress- 
ing effects.  Horses  eat  it  eagerly,  but  if  for  any  length 
of  time  in  excess,  it  is  said,  it  operates  as  a  poison  on 
the  skin,  and  causes  the  hair  to  fall  off.  It  is  useful, 
and  often  employed  to  be  packed  among  furs  or  woolens, 
to  keep  away  the  moths,  h. 

The  Thorn  Apple — Jamestown  Weed  (Datura  stra- 
monium), plate  30,  fig.  6,  branched,  spreading ;  leaves 
large,  smooth,  with  long,  irregular  teeth  and  sinuses  ; 
flowers  bluish-white,  solitary,  campanulate  ;  fruit  egg- 
shaped,  the  size  of  a  small  apple,  and  covered  with 
17 


386  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

spines :  seeds  black,  rough,  dotted,  somewhat  like  flax- 
seed.  Stem  two  to  four  feet  high  :  hoth  herb  and  seeds 
are  powerfully  narcotic  poisons.  Children  are  apt  to  be 
attracted  by  the  flowers  and  thorny  apples,  therefore, 
the  plant  being  common,  it  is  highly  important  that 
every  one  should  be  made  acquainted  with  its  dangerous 
properties.  Symptoms  of  its  effects  are,  great  anxiety, 
tremor,  difficulty  of  breathing,  dizziness,  palsy,  delirium, 
and  death.  Emetics  and  acidulated  drinks  are  the  popu- 
lar remedies.  Being  powerfully  nai-cotic,  it  is  itself  a 
potent  medicine ;  used  with  certain  restrictions,  is  useful 
in  asthma,  etc.  Said  to  be  a  native  of  America,  but  is, 
most  likely,  of  Asiatic  origin.  O . 

Tobacco  (Nicotiana  tabacum),  leaves  lance-ovate,  decur- 
rent ;  stem  clammy,  three  to  six  feet  high  ;  flowers  green- 
ish-yellow ;  corolla  bordered  with  rose  color,  standing  in 
terminal  panicles.  The  whole  plant  has  a  disagreeable, 
stupefying  odor  and  nauseous,  acrid  taste.  Native  of 
Central  America,  Tobago,  and  the  Proviace  of  Tabasco 
in  Mexico,  it  was  taken  to  England  toward  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  by  whom 
the  practice  of  smoking  this  pernicious  weed  was  first 
introduced.  As  its  first  use,  whether  smoked  or  chewed, 
produces  a  deadly  sickness,  it  Avas  only  after  repeated 
and  painful  trials  that  it  at  last  became  tolerate-l.  first  as 
smoked  or  chewed,  and  lastly  in  the  form  of  snuff.  The 
habitual  use  of  tobacco  is  always,  more  or  less,  injuri- 
ous to  the  system,  especially  to  the  nervous  system. 
Smoked,  it  soothes  or  quiets  the  nerves  of  the  stomach  ; 
consequently  the  appetite  for  food  is  lessened ;  employed 
as  snuff,  it  excites  or  exhilirates  another  set  of  nerves, 
but  in  each  case  equally  deleterious.  Sailors  use  it  to 
keep  off  scurvy.  Taken  into  the  stoma?h.  it  is  a  power- 


PLANTS.  387 

fully  acrid  narcotic  poison,  creating  nausea,  emesis,  etc., 
spasmodic  cramps  and  convulsions.  Q- 

The  Taubling  (Agaricus  integer)  is  from  one  to  two 
inches  high  and  a  half  or  quarter  of  an  inch  thick ;  stem 
smooth,  slightly  bent,  thicker  below  than  above,  whitish, 
running  into  red ;  cap  or  umbrella  closing  from  above, 
concave  in  the  middle.  Is  of  all  colors,  and  one  to  five 
inches  in  diameter.  Leaf  white  or  of  a  pale  foul  yellow. 
The  young  boletii  are  tender,  the  old  hard  and  inedible. 
Found  everywhere  in  Europe  from  August  to  September, 
spring  up  after  warm  rains  among  moss  and  leaves  in  dry 
places.  Sometimes  they  can  be  eaten  with  impunity,  at 
others,  however,  they  are  very  poisonous,  and  in  their 
effect  resemble  the  hog  mushroom. 

Darnel,  also  called  Tare,  Cockle-weed  (Lolium  temu- 
lentum),  plate  31,  fig.  7,  and  in  the  German  Schwin- 
delhaber,  because  it  produces  intoxication,  belongs  to  the 
Graminaea.  Flowers  numerous,  seated  on  obtuse,  com- 
pressed spikes,  fringed  with  beards  ;  grows  among  grain, 
particularly  oats ;  leaves  sharp  on  the  edges.  Creates 
giddiness  of  the  head  and  a  species  of  sleepy  drunken- 
ness, Avherefore  unprincipled  brewers  are  in  the  habit  of 
putting  the  seeds  in  their  beer  in  order  to  increase  its  so- 
porific effect.  Seeds  rough  and  black,  when  abundant  in 
wheat  are  injurious  to  the  quality  and  appearance  of 
bread  made  from  the  flour.  Emetics  and  acids,  as  pre- 
viously recommended,  are  antidotes  to  its  poison.  O- 

Belladonna  (Atropa  belladonna),  German  Mad  Apple, 
plate  30,  fig.  1,  is  an  herbaceous  plant,  five  to  six  feet 
high  ;  leaves  naked,  ovate  ;  root  turnip-like ;  flowers 
dull  dark  red,  and  the  berries  glossy  black,  are  filled  with 
purplish-red  juice  and  light  brown  seeds.  Every  portion 
of  this  plant  is  poisonous  in  the  highest  degree.  The 


388  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

odor  has  a  stupefying  effect  and  the  leaves  a  bitter  taste. 
The  berries  being  sweet,  are,  on  that  account,  particu- 
larly dangerous  to  children.  The  consequences  of  poison- 
ing by  Belladonna  are,  anxiety,  headache,  distressing 
thirst  and  fever.  It  has  a  peculiar  effect  on  the  eyes  and 
throat,  the  pupils  become  unnaturally  dilated,  the  latter 
swells  so  that  swallowing  becomes  difficult  and  soon  im- 
possible. Stupor,  palsy  of  the  extremities,  wandering  of 
mind  next  ensues,  and  lastly  death.  Emetics  are  proper  ; 
their  operations  assisted  by  the  application  of  mustard 
to  the  stomach.  Cooling,  astringent,  and  mucilaginous 
drinks  are  also  recommended.  2£ . 

The  Water  Hemlock  (Cicuta  virosa),  plate  31,  fig.  1. 
Stem  two  to  four  feet  high,  smooth,  finely  channeled, 
jointed  and  branching  above,  lower  leaves  triternate, 
quinate ;  leaflets  or  segments  small  and  finely  toothed  ; 
grows  in  margins  of  swampy  rivulets.  The  mature  fruit 
has  a  strong,  anisate  odor,  resembling  that  of  celery  ; 
taste,  however,  is  very  different,  being  acrid  and  bitter. 
Root  turnip-like  and  very  poisonous,  and  the  lives  of 
children  and  others  are  often  endangered  and  even  de- 
stroyed by  eating  it  in  mistake  for  that  of  the  sweet 
cicely.  Effects  much  resemble  those  produced  by  Conium 
maculatum,  only  the  poison,  more  virulent  and  deadly, 
consummates  its  work  of  death  more  rapidly.  Remedies 
the  same  as  recommended  in  the  treatment  of  poison  from 
Conium  maculatum.  O.  The  herbage  is  also  said  to  be 
destructive  to  cattle. 

From  the  short  sketch  we  have  given  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  our  readers  may  see  how  many  varied  and  im- 
portant services  are  rendered  to  us  by  plants.  A  great 
many  of  them  afford  to  man  wholesome  and  abundant 
food  ;  others,  as  has  been  shown  just  above,  are  violent 


PLANTS.  389 

poisons  to  him,  but  even  those  are  made  subservient  to 
his  uses,  because,  when  judiciously  administered,  they 
constitute  powerful  medicines.  Much  that  is  interesting 
might  be  said  on  this  subject,  but  we  have  not  the  time, 
nor  is  this  the  place,  as  perhaps  some  of  our  readers  may 
be  disposed  to  think  we  have  been  rather  prolix  in  our  de- 
scriptions of  poisonous  plants.  Let  us,  therefore,  close 
our  sketch  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom  with  a  recommen- 
dation of  the  study  of  Botany,  which  is  an  important  one, 
inasmuch  as  extended  among  the  people,  it  will  enable 
them  to  understand  and  avoid  and  extirpate  the  evil,  and 
turn  that  which  is  most  noxious  to  useful  and  benevolent 
purposes. 


MINERALOGY 


THE  science  of  Mineralogy  is  that  which  treats  of  the 
inorganic  substances  existing  in  and  composing  the  earth's 
crust — mountains,  rocks,  ores,  and  earths.  The  study 
of  these  various  substances,  and  the  mineral  masses  they 
contain,  belongs  particularly  to  mineralogy,  but  the  study 
of  their  mutual  relations,  and  the  nature  of  the  materials 
which  constitute  the  structure  of  our  globe  at  present,  is 
the  province  of  geology.  In  the  first  respect  it  is  min- 
eralogy in  particular ;  in  the  last  it  is  geology  (from  the 
Greek,  ge,  the  earth,  and  logos,  a  discourse),  or  that 
branch  of  natural  history  which  treats  of  the  structure 
of  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  forces  by  which  it  has 
been  modified  to  its  present  form.  We  will,  therefore, 
commence  by  sketching  the  principal  features  of  geology, 
and  afterwards  give  a  more  detailed  description  of  the 
subjects  lying  within  the  particular  province  of  min- 
eralogy. 

THE  PRIMITIVE  FORMATIONS  OF  THE  EARTH. 

All  the  inorganic  substances  which  we  find  upon  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  present  one  common  feature,  namely, 
that  one  and  all  have  been  produced  by  igneous  action, 
or  in  other  words,  by  the  influence  of  fire.  All  the  rocks, 


i?  if  J&2, 


MINERALOGY.  391 

earths,  water,  and  air*  have  evidently  been  subjected  to  the 
action  of  a  severe  process  of  ignition  before  they  assumed 
their  present  form.  This  brings  us,  therefore,  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  earth,  at  some  remote  period,  was  a  liquid 
mass,  melted  by  heat,  which  gradually  became  cooled, 
and  many  appearances  now  met  with  seem  to  demonstrate 
that  the  center  of  the  earth  is  still  in  a  state  of  constant 
fusion.  The  only  exceptions  from  the  general  igneous 
process  are  the  noble  metals. 

Accordingly,  then,  as  by  the  action  of  this  burning 
process  not  only  the  earth,  but  also  water,  was  formed, 
we  may  reasonably  be  led  to  suppose  that  at  that  time 
the  earth  appeared  as  a  large  ball  or  globe,  whose  surface, 
unmarked  by  any  undulations  of  hill  or  valley,  was  cov- 
ered with  thick  mud,  and  from  which  was  produced  the 
aquatic  plants  and  animals  whose  fossil  remains  are  found 
entombed  in  the  rocks  and  different  strata  which  compose 
the  earth's  crust.  This  physical  condition  of  the  surface 
of  the  globe,  which  must  have  continued  for  many  cen- 
turies, has  undergone  great  and  numerous  changes,  as  is 
altogether  evident  from  the  order  of  the  superposition  of 
the  different  strata  of  formations,  supposed  to  be  the 
effect  of  fearful  volcanic  eruptions,  which  have  raised  up 
the  solid  crust  of  the  globe,  and  causing  the  dry  land  to 
be  lifted  up  above  the  waters,  formed  islands  in  different 
places,  as  may  sometimes  be  seen  in  the  present  day. 
These  islands  formed  the  first  firm  land,f  and  most  pro- 
bably gave  rise  to  a  new  flora  and  a  new  population  of 
animated  creatures,  Avhose  fossil  remains,  found  in  the 
different  strata,  as  those  of  amphibia,  mammals,  birds, 

*  By  the  term  mineral  is  meant  any  inorganic  object,  whether  solid, 
liquid,  or  gaseous. 

•j-  Feste-land,  Germ.  (Continent). 


392  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

etc.,  not  only  prove  characteristic  of  the  different  periods 
at  which  they  have  existed,  but  also  prove  the  truth  of 
those  great  geological  convulsions  which  have  brought 
the  earth  to  its  present  form.  Through  the  repetition  of 
these  volcanic  eruptions,  at  different  epochs  and  in 
unequal  intervals  of  time,  the  firm  land  gradually  sepa- 
rated more  and  more  from  the  water,  although  it  does 
not  appear  that  genuine  mountains  as  yet  existed ;  but 
(as  geologists  say),  that  the  earth's  crust,  remaining  for  a 
long  time,  at  first,  in  a  soft  or  pasty  condition,  gradually 
cooled  and  became  hard,  partly  by  the  action  of  the  air 
and  partly  by  the  operations  of  its  own  internal  agents, 
as  exhibited  in  volcanic  disturbances  ;  it  solidified  into 
masses,  and  formed  what  the  German  geologists  term 
Flotzgebirge,  Germ,  (stratified  mountains),  primary 
rock  formation.* 

As  each  of  these  stratified  formations  present  us  with 
the  traces  of  the  existence  of  living  beings  peculiar  to 
the  different  epochs  at  which  they  lived,  we  have  come 
to  the  conclusion  that  at  each  geological  convulsion  these 
animals  must  have  perished  by  some  sudden  catastrophe ; 
and  not  only  is  this  supposition  educed  from  the  posi- 
tions in  which  they  are  found  entombed  as  in  the  very 
act  of  moving,  but  also  that  the  hard  portions  of  the 
original  structure,  such  as  bones,  shells,  etc.,  altered  in 

*  The  word  rock,  as  used  by  geologists,  is  applicable  to  all  mineral 
masses,  and  includes  in  its  meaning  sand,  marble,  clay,  granite,  etc., 
that  cover  the  solid  parts.  Comparing  the  different  materials  com- 
prising fce  earth's  crust,  as  found  in  examining  the  excavated  side  of 
a  mountain,  the  observer  will  very  soon  perceive  that  there  are  a 
great  many  different  formations,  and  that  these  layers  or  stories  are 
in  layers  or  stories  reposing  one  above  another — (plural  of  stratum 
a  Latin  word,  meaning  a  bed,  couch,  or  layer). — RUSCHEV.  GEOLOGY. 
—Tr. 


MINERALOGY.  393 

their  nature,  and  passed  into  the  fossil  state,  and  having 
undergone  an  alteration  into  stony  particles,  preserve  the 
skeleton  entire,  showing  no  dislocations  or  other  marks  of 
injury,  -which  would  contradict  the  generally  received 
opinion  that  death  had  overtaken  them  in  some  sudden 
revolution. 

From  a  configuration  of  the  sedimentary,  and  particu- 
larly the  primary  or  stratified  rock  formation,*  in  which 
no  fossil  remains  of  organic  bodies  are  found,  it  has  been 
inferred  at  this  epoch — the  first  geological — no  living 
beings  existed  on  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  that  until 
the  fourth  epoch,f  in  which  space  man  was  created,  the 
earth  was  (as  described  in  the  Mosaic  record)  without 
form  and  void,  an  extended  plain,  the  dry  land  raised  but 
little  above  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  consisted  mostly, 
it  is  supposed,  of  muddy  ground.  A  thick  crust  of  rocks, 
minerals,  and  earths,  melted  into  a  liquid  mass  by  the 
action  of  its  internal  heat,  and  kept  in  a  state  of  constant 

*  The  Sedimentary  Formations  are  those  which  are  deposited  by 
the  action  of  the  water  and  stratified.  The  primary  or  stratified  rocks 
are  those  in  which  neither  organic  remains  nor  fragments  of  the  most 
ancient  rocks  are  found.  This  group  includes  gniess,  mica-schist, 
quartz,  transition  schist,  limestone,  etc. — Ruschenberger. 

•)•  The  organic  creation  is  divided  into  four  successive  and  also  ra- 
tional epochs.  The  first  established  vegetative  life,  or  life  of  nutrition, 
which  is  manifested  not  only  in  plants,  but  also  in  the  inferior  animals, 
iu  which  we  find  scarcely  any  other  phenomena  than  that  of  nutrition, 
growth,  etc.  Afterwards  came  the  life  of  relation,  or  sensibility, 
instinct,  intelligence,  and  will,  successively  added,  in  different  propor- 
tions, to  the  phenomena  of  simple  existence.  This  new  life  first  takes 
a  certain  development  in  fishes  (including  reptiles  no  doubt);  then 
birds,  which,  together,  constitute  the  second  epoch  of  creation.  It 
acquired  a  new  extension  in  mammals,  -which  appeared  at  a  third 
epoch,  and  finally  reached  its  highest  degree  in  man,  with  whom  ter- 
minated the  work  of  the  Omnipotent,  receiving  a  soul  in  the  image  of 
God,  to  distinguish  him  from  all  other  creatures. — RUSCHEX. — Tr. 

17* 


394  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

fusion,  enveloped  its  interior  portion  ;  but  this  condition 
was  not  to  continue.  All  at  once — and  it  is  presumed 
it  was  but  the  work  of  a  moment — at  the  command  of  the 
Creative  Power,  the  scene  was  changed.  The  mighty 
elements  began  to  operate,  producing  the  great  upheaval 
of  the  internal  igneous  masses,  pressed  upwards  upon  the 
sedimentary  and  stratified  formations  already  existing, 
forced  them  out  of  their  original  beds  or  from  their  ordi- 
nary position,  as  may  be  plainly  discovered  by  examining 
the  strata  exposed  by  excavation.  A  very  simple  illus- 
tration may  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  such  an  upheaval, 
if  he  will  imagine  the  leaves  of  a  book  lying  superposed 
in  a  horizontal  position,  and  pressed  upwards  with  irre- 
sistible force  by  some  powerful  agent  below  how  each 
separate  leaf  will  be  dislodged,  twisted,  and  wrested  from 
its  original  position,  and  at  last  torn  asunder  by  the  pro- 
truding force  acting  baneath  them,  in  the  successful  effort 
for  freedom.  The  escaping  mass  forms  the  granite  or 
massive  rocks  seen  in  the  primary  rock  formation,  which 
term  includes  all  the  loose  materials — soils,  clays,  gravels 
— substances  which  were  previously  in  a  state  of  fusion. 

How  those  upheavals  have  originated  is  hard  to  tell. 
Perhaps  the  most  plausible  explanation  is  the  following  : 
The  earth,  which,  as  is  well  known  to  all,  turns  upon  its 
own  axis,  before  the  time  of  the  first  upheaval  performed 
its  rotatory  motion  more  rapidly  than  at  the  present ;  that 
suddenly  the  rate  of  its  diurnal  revolution  was  reduced 
to  its  present  measure,  therefore,  if  this  theory  is  true, 
it  may  be  supposed  that  those  heavy  masses  of  stone  or 
mineral  materials,  either  wholly  or  partially  in  a  state  of 
fusion,  which  we  now  call  primitive  rock  (granite,  which 
seems  to  form  the  foundation  stone  of  the  great  geological 
edifice)  might  be  able,  by  the  indwelling  centrifugal  force 


* 

MINERALOGY.  395 

to  raise  up  the  surrounding  superposed  strata,  force  its 
way  by  a  partial  explosion,  and  now  the  vast  quantity  of 
liquid  matter  overflowing  and  oscillating  from  side  to 
side,  could  emboss  it  with  those  igneous  masses,  which, 
on  cooling,  became  rocks.  The  following  may  also  be 
imagined  :  A  body  revolving  swiftly  on  an  axis,  becomes 
hotter  and  hotter,  according  to  the  rapidity  with  which 
it  is  turned  ;  but  let  the  velocity  be  checked  suddenly — a 
cooling  process  at  once  begins.  This  was  also  the  case 
with  our  earth  in  the  earliest  antediluvian  period  ;  the 
incandescence  or  liquifaction  gradually  cooled  down,  and 
continuing  after  the  upheaval,  which  caused  the  primary 
rock  formation,  the  great  ice  period  ensued,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  have  continued  for  many  centuries,  the  remains 
of  which  are  still  occasionally  met  with. 

It  may  be  imagined  that  at  the  time  of  the  ice  period 
the  greater  portion  of  the  earth's  surface  was  covered 
with  ice.  Gradually,  however,  the  imprisoned  waters 
melted,  and  accomplished  great  and  remarkable  changes 
on  the  face  of  the  earth.  In  the  large  masses  of  water 
which  now  covered  the  surface  of  the  earth,  many  whirl- 
pools and  torrents  of  fearful  power  were  produced,  which, 
tearing  away  and  removing  all  parts  fractured  by  the 
upheaval,  forced  their  passage  through  all  obstructions, 
and  formed  the  valleys,  ridges,  and  other  configurations, 
of  which  there  is  palpable  evidence  at  the  present  day. 
For  instance,  on  the  opposite  slopes  of  great  ravines, 
which  those  fiercely  running  waters  have  excavated  in  their 
headlong  course,  the  same  course  of  stratification  is  ob- 
served to  exist  unaltered,  except  where  some  volcanic 
eruption  has  come  in  the  way,  and  disturbed  the  general 
law.  In  the  low-lying  regions  of  the  earth,  where  the 
depression  of  the  surface  is  greatest,  as  Middle  Asia,  the 


396  '     NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Desert  of  Sahara,  and  in  Europe,  the  Mark  of  Branden- 
burg, are  found  immense  masses  of  sand,  supposed  to 
be  the  disintegrated  portions  of  rocks  carried  there  by 
the  transporting  power  o'f  -water;  and  so  great  is  its 
power  of  moving  heavy  substances,  that  even  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  in  the  low-lying  plains  of  Brandenburg,  East 
Prussia,  and  Russia,  very  large  blocks  of  granite,  em- 
bedded in  ice,  are  found  deposited  there,  transported  in 
this  way  far  from  the  places  of  their  origin  or  point  of 
departure.  It  is  impossible  that  these  masses  of  rock 
could  have  been  carried  there  or  kept  afloat  in  any  other 
way  than  on  ice  cakes,  which,  as  the  velocity  of  the  cur- 
rent lessened,  on  reaching  the  level  ground,  were  depos- 
ited there.  Animals  and  plants,  embedded  in  similar 
icebergs,  have  been  carried  by  the  same  transporting 
power  to  portions  of  the  earth  most  remote  from  their 
original  homes ;  for  instance,  trees  or  branches  of  the 
palm  family,  natives  of  the  far  East,  have  been  met  with 
in  the  iceblocks  of  the  German  Alps,  and  animals  of  the 
antediluvian  genus  of  elephants  have  been  found  in  the 
ice-fields  of  Siberia;  their  fossil  remains  uninjured  by 
the  friction  or  obstacles  met  with  in  removal. 

The  Glaciers,  those  beds  of  ice  occupying  the  high 
valleys  of  lofty  mountain  chains,  as  well  as  the  ice-fields 
of  Siberia,  and  the  so-called  polar  ice,  are  but  the  remains 
of  the  great  ice  period,  which  has  had  much  agency  in 
producing  the  present  form  of  the  earth.  Granite  and 
some  other  unstratified  rocks  which  were  considered  to 
have  formed  the  foundation  stone  of  the  great  geological 
edifice,  it  is  now  admitted,  do  not  all  date  from  an  anti- 
quity so  remote,  but  are  in  reality  younger  than  the 
stratified  or  primary  rock  formations.  Of  still  more 
recent  date  are  the  unstratified  or  igneous  rock  forma- 


MINERALOGY.  397 

tions,  which  owe  their  origin  entirely  to  volcanic  agency, 
and  are  found  in  heaped-up  fragments  everywhere  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  Basaltes  are  evidently  traceable 
to  craters  of  subterranean  volcanoes, 'having  arisen  from 
them  in  the  epoch  of  their  activity,  and  bursting  through 
all  opposing  matter,  formed  thick  deposits,  which,  on 
cooling,  exhibited  large  heaps  of  lava-like  substances, 
forming  isolated  masses,  as  bosses,  hillocks,  or  regular 
columnar  shapes,  divided  into  prismatic  pillars.*  The 
Palisades  on  the  North  River  are  examples  of  basaltic 
columns. 

From  these  statements,  it  is  therefore  plainly  deduced 
that  the  primitive  formations  of  stratified  and  unstratified 
rocks  were  originated  either  by  upheaval  or  depression 
of  the  earth's  crust,  by  the  action  of  fire,  or  formed  by 
sedimentary  deposits  left  by  the  moving  mass  of  waters, 
which,  as  above  stated,  in  their  headlong  course,  exca- 
vated valleys,  formed  hills  of  alluvial  detritus,  and,  pro- 
ducing great  changes,  finally  left  its  effects  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth,  as  is  everywhere  apparent  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  These  are  called  primary  (stratified)  rocks. 
Those  which,  in  the  earliest  antediluvian  period  were 
formed  by  upheaval  or  owe  their  origin  to  the  exploding 
force  of  volcanic  action,  escaped  from  the  bosom  of  the 


*  De  la  Beche  divides  all  rocks  into  two  great  classes,  Stratified 
and  Unstratified.  The  latter  he  treats  as  a  single  family ;  the  former 
he  subdivides  into  ten  groups.  (See  De  la  Beche's  "  Manual  of  Geo- 
logy," p.  38.  Lyell's  first  class  embraces  only  alluvium,  and  is  called 
Recent ;  the  second  contains,  and  is  named  the  Tertiary,  diluvium 
being  included  in  the  upper  part ;  the  third  class  he  denominates 
Secondary,  which  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  old  red  sandstone  ; 
next  succeeds  his  Primary  Fossiliferous  Class,  which  includes  all  the 
remaining  fossiliferous  rocks.  His  Metamorphic  Rocks  embrace  all 
the  stratified  non-fossiliferous  groups.  The  unstratified  rocks  are 


898  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

earth  in  a  state  of  fusion,  resembling  great  masses  of 
melted  porcelain,  glass,  or  metals,  became  solid  bj  cool- 
ing, but  -without  being  stratified.  These  are  called  mas- 
sive or  unstratified  rocks.*  The  several  formations  are 
divided  into  the  following  classes  and  orders  : 


distributed  through  these  several  classes,  and  he  has  likewise  made  a 
division  of  those  unstratified  rocks  that  exist  below  the  stratified  ones 
into  Primary  Plutonic,  Secondary  Plutonic,  Tertiary  Plutonic,  and 
Recent  Plutonic,  reckoning  in  a  descending  order. — Lyell's  "  Principles 
of  Geology,"  VoL  2,  p.  504. — Rozet,  in  1835,  divided  all  rocks  into 
two  great  series,  viz.,  Stratified  and  Unstratified  rocks.  His  first 
scries  he  divides  into  six  geognostic  epochs,  the  first  embracing  allu- 
vium, the  second  diluvium,  the  third  the  tertiary  strata,  the  fourth 
the  subjacent  rocks  as  deep  as  the  coal  measures,  the  fifth  the  remain- 
ing fossiliferous  rocks,  and  the  sixth  the  non-fossiliferous  stratified 
rocks. — "  Traite  Elementaire  de  Geologic,"  par  H.  ROZET. — As  our 
book  is  from  the  German,  and  intended  for  the  use  of  American  read- 
ers, we  beg  leave  to  make  the  following  observation  on  the  geology 
of  that  country.  The  south-western  and  eastern  borders  of  Ger- 
many consist  of  lofty  mountains  of  primitive  rocks,  which  occur  also 
in  several  places  more  central,  as  in  the  Hartz  Mountains.  Second- 
ary rocks  occur  in  many  places,  though  relatively  less  abundant  than 
in  Great  Britain.  Yet  nearly  all  the  fossiliferous  rocks  of  Great 
Britain  are  found  in  Germany,  and  in  the  same  relative  position.  A 
part  of  the  extensive  plains  of  North  Germany  is  composed  of  ter- 
tiary rocks,  covered  with  diluvial  detritus  from  Scandinavia.  As  many 
as  four  other  tertiary  basins  occur  in  Germany.  Indeed,  nearly  every 
stratified  rock  that  has  been  found  in  any  part  of  the  world  exists  in 
Germany.  It  is  also  rich  in  ores  and  mineral  substances  of  every 
kind,  and  it  is  the  most  remarkable  country  in  Europe  for  the  extent 
of  its  mining  operations  and  for  the  scientific  skill  with  which  they 
are  conducted. — HITCHCOCK'S  GEOLOGY. — Tr. 

*  As  the  various  formations  constituting  the  common  portion  of  the 
globe  differ  so  widely  in  their  nature,  in  their  constitution  and  mode 
of  arrangement,  some  produced  in  the  midst  of  the  waters,  "  by  the 
deposit  of  solid  materials  held  in  suspension  or  in  solution  by  this 
liquid,  and  others  by  the  action  of  heat  on  earthy  materials  suscep- 
tible of  bein^  melted  and  of  being  afterwards  hardened  by  cooling," 


MINERALOGY.  399 


FIRST   CLASS.— PRIMARY  OR   STRATIFIED   ROCK  FORM- 
ATION. 

FIRST  ORDER  :  Transition  Rock  Formation. — Sedimentary. 

SECOND  ORDER  :  Tertiaiy  Rock  Formation. 

THIRD  ORDER  :  Secondary  or  Unstratified  (Floetzgebirg — Flat  Rock) 

Rock  Formation. 
FOURTH  ORDER  :  Diluvial  and  Alluvial  Deposits. 


geologists  have  divided  them  into  two  great  classes,  namely  the 
Sedimentary  or  Stratified  Formations  and  the  Massif  or  Igneous 
Formations.  On  account  of  the  presumed  method  of  their  pro- 
duction they  are  also  designated  under  the  names  of  Aqueous 
or  Neptunian  Formations,  and  Igneous  or  Plutonic  Formations. 
The  first,  which  was  the  theory  of  the  celebrated  Werner,  affected 
to  prove  that  the  present  appearances  of  the  globe  may  be  traced, 
with  the  exception  of  volcanic  products,  entirely  to  the  agency 
of  water,  to  aqueous  solution,  disintegration,  and  deposition,  and  are 
termed  stratified  formations  and  most  of  them  sedimentary  forma- 
tions. These  deposits  formed  a  variety  of  crystalline  aggregates, 
such  as  granite,  primitive,  slate,  and  limestone,  and  constitute  the 
primary  rocks,  supposed  to  have  had  their  origin  at  the  earliest  geol- 
ogical epoch.  The  second  class  of  rocks  is  supposed  to  have  been 
formed  during  the  transition  of  the  earth  from  its  chaotic  .to  its  habit- 
able state,  and  are  called  transition  rocks.  The  third  class  of  rocks 
is  supposed  to  have  been  formed  by  the  action  of  the  natural  ele- 
ments on  these,  and  by  which  they  have  been  broken  down  and 
mechanically  diffused  by  water.  The  action  of  frost,  water,  and. 
attrition  are  supposed  chiefly  to  have  produced  this  effect,  after 
which  the  materials  were  deposited  in  horizontal  strata.  These  are 
the  Floetz  or  flat  rocks  of  Werner,  and  the  tertiary  or  secondary  rocks 
of  later  authors.  They  abound  in  vegetable  and  animal  remains. 
The  Plutonic  rock  formation  is  attributed  to  the  agency  of  fire,  not 
entirely  rejecting  that  of  water.  According  to  this  theory  the  mate- 
rials which  compose  the  present  surface  of  the  globe,  have  been 
derived  from  the  ruin  of  ancient  rocks  which  have  been  disintegrated 
and  pulverized  by  the  continued  action  of  water,  and  transported  by 
the  same  means  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Here  they  have  been  con- 
solidated partly  by  time  and  partly  by  the  pressure  of  the  water,  but 
chiefly  by  the  effects  of  subterranean  heat.  By  the  expansive  power 


400  NATURAL   HISTORY. 


SECOND   CLASS.— MASSIF   OR   IGXEOUS   ROCKS. 

FIRST  ORDER  :  Primitive  Mountains. — Stratified. 
SECOND  ORDER  :  Basaltic  or  Volcanic  Rock  Formations.* 


of  volcanic  heat,  the  strata  thus  formed  have  been  elevated  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean  to  occupy  the  situations  under  which  they  now 
appear.  Thus  the  strata  are  thrown  into  different  degrees  of  inclina- 
tion to  the  horizon,  or  are  broken  and  dislocated,  or  appear  in  nearly 
a  vertical  position,  depending  on  the  degree  of  force  or  the  power  of 
its  application.  Sometimes  when  the  heat  has  been  most  intense,  an 
entire  fusion  of  the  materials  has  been  effected.  The  rocks  which 
are  not  stratified,  or  not  composed  of  layers,  as  granite,  are  supposed 
to  have  undergone  complete  fusion,  while  those  which  consist  of  lay- 
ers, as  mica  slate,  are  supposed  to  have  been  softened  by  the  heat. — 
BRAXDE'S  OUTLINES  OF  GEOLOGY. — Tr. 

*  The  most  simple  division  of  rocks  is  into  Primitive  or  Primary, 
and  Secondary.  The  first  consisting  of  those  which  are  supposed  to 
have  been  originally  formed,  such  as  granite  and  its  associates,  and 
the  second  such  as  were  formed  by  the  disintegration  or  destruction 
of  these.  In  the  first  kind  no  organic  remains,  as  plants  or  shells, 
are  found,  and  hence  they  are  supposed  to  have  been  formed  before 
the  creation  of  organized  beings.  In  the  Secondary,  these  remains 
often  exist  in  great  abundance.  To  this  classification  the  celebrated 
Werner  added  the  Transition  Class,  wliich  consists  of  the  larger 
fragments  of  the  Primitive,  and  which  is  intermediate  between  this 
and  that  usually  called  Secondary.  The  following  classification  is 
perhaps  the  simplest,  and  being  without  minute  subdivisions,  will  be 
most  easily  understood  : 

.     I. — Primary. 

II. — Transition  or  Intermediate. 
III. — Comprising, 
a. — The  Lower  Secondary  Series. 
6. — The  Upper  Secondary  Series. 
IV.— Tertiary. 

V. — Basaltic  and  Volcanic  Rocks. 
VI Diluvial  and  Alluvial  Deposits. 


MINERALOGY.  401 

FIRST   CLASS. 

PRIMARY   STRATIFIED   ROCK  FORMATIONS. 
FIRST     ORDER. 

TRANSITION  FORMATIONS  OF  MODERN  TIMES,  COTEMPORANE- 
OUS  WITH  THE  EXISTENCE  OF  MAN  ON  THE  EARTH  AND 
STILL  FOUND. 

By  the  term  Primary  Rock  we  understand  all  forma- 
tions from  drift,  transport,  alluvions,  etc.,  which  compose 
the  exterior  strata  of  spongy  or  loose  soil  found  on  the 
earth's  surface,  whether  on  the  extended  plain,  deep  val- 
ley, or  covering  the  bottom  of  lakes. 

The  stratified  rocks  bear  evidence  in  every  part — in 
their  regular  layers,  their  worn  sand  or  pebbles,  and 
their  fossils,  that  they  are  the  results  of  gradual  accumu- 
lations beneath  waters,  marine  or  fresh,  or  on  the  shores 
of  seas,  lakes,  and  rivers. 

The  organic  remains  of  creatures  belonging  to  species 
yet  existing,  which,  not  exactly  fossil,  but  half  decayed 
and  partially  burned,  mingled  with  ernpyreumatic  sub- 
stances are  often  found  deeply  hidden  within  its  structure, 
and  utensils  of  different  kinds,  and  weapons  of  war,  etc., 
the  relics  of  remote  early  times  are  also  met  with  in  the 
excavations  attending  the  improvements  pursued  at  the 
present  day.  By  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere  or 
weather  on  the  primary  stratified  formations,  causing 
degradation  of  certain  portions  soluble  in  water,  and 
carried  away  by  floods,  torrents,  volcanic  ejections,  etc., 
all  contribute,  by  forming  sedimentary  deposits,  to  con- 
tinually form,  renew,  or  maintain  the  structure  of  this 
formation.  We  shall  first,  in  describing  this  class,  name 


402  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

Alluvium  or  Vegetable  Earth,  which  is  a  combina- 
tion of  different  earths  or  soils,  varying  according  to  cir- 
cumstances or  position.  Mostly  it  is  composed  of  » 
mixture  of  sand,  clay,  and  marl,  but  is  also  very  often 
formed  directly  by  the  disintegration  of  other  formations. 
and  their  mixture  with  the  products  of  decomposition  of 
other  plants  and  animals,  spread  in  a  layer  of  more  or 
less  thickness,  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  called 
Humus.  Wherever  this  deposit  is  found  abundantly, 
the  soil  is  eminently  fruitful. 

Turf  Moors  or  Peat  Bogs  are  found  in  different  ex- 
cavations of  the  surfa'ce  in  valleys  or  low  marshy  situa- 
tions, where  stagnant  waters  constantly  exist.  All 
aquatic  plants,  such  as  Duck-meat  (Lemma),  cresses, 
etc.,  contribute  to  the  formation  of  peat,  as  well  as  ter- 
restrial plants  brought  to  these  bogs  by  brooks,  and, 
being  submerged,  gradually  become  decomposed,  and 
form  a  single  accumulated  mass  of  what  seems  black 
earth.  From  this  soil  spring  various  other  plants, 
which,  in  their  turn  die  and  also  become  decomposed, 
particularly  as  the  water  partially  dries  away.  Fre- 
quently trees  or  large  plants  which  grow  on  the  borders 
are  found  buried  in  the  mass,  particularly  in  the  lower 
part,  where  they  accumulate  on  sands  and  clays  found 
on  the  bottom,  or,  mingling  Avith  the  humus,  compose  a 
web  of  fibrous  tissue,  which  forms  the  combustible  sub- 
stance known  as  peat  or  turf.  These  peat-bogs,  when 
exhausted,  if  left  undisturbed  for  a  few  years,  are  sure 
to  renew  themselves  by  a  similar  process  to  that  already 
described. 

Coral  Reefs. — These  formations  of  stony  polyparia  are 
the  framework  formed  by  coral  animalcule,  and  cemented 
together  by  calcareous  matter.  The  polyparia  continue 


MINERALOGY.  403 

to  build  in  many  branchings  until  the  ridge  reaches  to 
the  surface  of  the  sea  at  low  water,  after  which  the  sea 
washes  upon  it  fragments  of  coral,  driftwood,  sea  grass, 
portions  of  stranded  ships,  etc.  These  substances  de- 
compose and  form  soil,  which  gradually  accumulates, 
and,  as  the  sea  birds  flock  there  in  great  numbers,  the 
seeds  transported  by  them  from  other  climes  spring  up, 
and  aid  in  forming  islands  which  are  at  length  occupied 
by  animals,  with  man  at  their  head.* 

Calcareous  Tufa  or  Travertin  is  a  deposit  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  formed  by  depositions  of  water  from 
springs  containing  that  substance  in  solution.  The  con- 
cretionary deposits  found  depending  from  the  roof  of 
caves  are  called  Stalactites,  the  portion  encrusting  the 
floor  Stalagmite.  The  first  is  formed  by  the  percola- 
tion of  water  through  limestone  rocks,  and  the  calcareous 
particles  which  were  dissolved  and  subsequently  left  on 
the  roof  of  the  cavern  by  the  evaporation  of  the  water. 
Stalactites  assume  many  grotesque  forms,  but  mostly 
hang  like  icicles,  and  gradually  increase  by  the  further 
deposition  of  stony  particles,  in  concentric  rings.  Some- 
times the  stalactite  and  stalagmite  meet,  and,  joining, 
form  pillars  extending  from  the  floor  to  the  roof  of  the 
cavern. 


*  A  cluain  of  coral  islets  four  hundred  and  eighty  geographical 
miles  in  length  has  long  been  known  as  the  Maldives.  Volcanic 
agency,  also,  often  lifts  the  reef  far  above  the  waters.  Great  masses 
of  Guano,  often  extending  many  fathoms  deep,  are  found  in  these 
homes  of  the  sea  birds.  A  well  known  fertilizer  of  soils,  guano  has 
now  become  an  article  of  commerce,  and  is  brought  from  the  coral 
reefs  of  the  South  Sea,  where  sea  birds  have  congregated  unmolested 
for  centuries  uncounted. — See  LTELL'S  GEOLOGY,  p.  172. 


404  NATURAL  HISTORY. 

SECOND    ORDER. 
TERTIARY    ROCK   FORMATION. 

The  Tertiary  or  Third  Formation  was  deposited 
after  the  secondary,  and  may  be  considered  as  being 
made  up  of  the  disintegration  of  the  two  foregoing 
series,  namely,  by  silicious  limestone  or  fresh  water 
chalk,  together  with  sand,  clay,  and  marl.  The  tertiary 
strata  contain  a  great  number  of  fossil  remains  analogous 
to  or  identical  with  species  still  existing,  and  also  gigan- 
tic specimens  of  a  race  of  quadrupeds  long  since  extinct. 
Fossil  shells,  fragments  of  wood,  the  remnants  of  primi- 
tive forests  overthrown  by  volcanic  agency — the  latter 
often  found  embedded  in  the  Brown  Coal  Measures — 
bones  of  fishes,  crocodiles  and  other  reptiles,  of  birds  and 
even  of  quadrupeds,  such  as  apes,  hyenas,  bears,  etc., 
the  latter  being  isolated  and  often  entire.  The  mention 
of  these  remains  of  animals  belonging  to  genera  still 
existing  but  the  species  of  which  is  now  lost,  induces,  in 
this  place  a  consideration  of 

The  Bone  Caverns  found  partially  in  this  formation 
and  partially  in  the  earlier  formations,  remarkable  for 
the  number  and  variety  of  bones  they  contain  of  ani- 
mals mostly  of  races  belonging  to  the  earliest  times ; 
they  appear  to  have  been  destroyed  in  the  geological 
revolution  which  upheaved  the  Alps  and  gave  its  present 
form  to  Europe.  These  caverns  seem  to  have  afforded  a 
resting-place  to  many  varieties  of  animals  that  frequented 
them  as  suitable  spots  for  devouring  their  prey,  or  finally 
came  to  them  to  die.  Deer,  horses,  oxen,  hyenas,  wolves, 
dogs,  etc.,  all  seem  to  have  congregated  in  those  subter- 
ranean abodes ;  can  it  be  assumed  that  they  dwelt  in 


MINERALOGY.  405 

peace  together,  and  went  forth  in  companies  to  hunt 
their  prey,  or  were  they  the  prey  of  others  who  devoured 
them  there  ?  However  this  may  be,  their  bones  accu- 
mulated through  a  great  many  generations,  and  the 
fossil  remains  of  their  dejections  prove  that  these  cav- 
erns were  permanent  rather  than  temporary  resting- 
places  for  them. 

The  most  remarkable  are  those  of  the  Hartz,  Fran- 
conia  (in  the  latter  is  the  bear  cavern  of  Galenreuth), 
Muggendorf,  Hohlenstein,  Erpfingen,  Adelsberg,  and 
Kirkdale,  in  which  last  named  the  bones  found  were 
proved  to  have  belonged  to  twenty- three  genera.* 


THIRD    ORDER. 
SECONDARY    ROCKS     (Floetzgebirge). 

This  formation,  which,  with  the  exception  of  the  prim- 
itive rock  formation,  constitutes  the  great  portion  of  the 
so-called  mineral  earths  of  which  our  mountain  ridges 
are  composed,  consists  of  numerous  and  plainly  devel- 
oped strata  of  chalk  and  sandstone  superposed  in  alter- 
nate layers.  It  contains  a  great  number  of  organic 
remains  in  a  perfected  fossil  state,  which  evidently 
belong  to  an  antediluvian  period.  Few  of  these  "med- 
als of  Creation"  present  vestiges  of  mammals,  but  the 
remains  of  numerous  mollusks,  from  the  gigantic  Am- 
mon's  horn  to  the  smallest  gryphite.  Amphibia  are 

*  Professor  Buckland  supposes  that  this  cave  was  a  den  of  hyenas, 
and  that  the  multitude  of  bones  found  there  were  carried  into  the 
cave  by  these  animals,  and  therefore  that  the  hyena,  an  animal  now 
inhabiting  only  the  hottest  climates,  once  lived  in  England. — See 
RELIQUE  DILCVIAN^E,  p.  37. — Tr. 


406  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

also  found,  although  not  frequently,  but  those  that  come 
to  light  are  of  immense  size ;  and  also  in  this  formation 
belong  those  singular  Saurians  whose  skeletons  remind 
the  observer  at  once  of  fish  and  lizard.  The  fossil 
plants  found  in  this  formation,  of  simple  structure  but 
immense  size,  belong  mostly  to  the  genera  of  Equlse- 
tacea,  or  horse-tails,  ferns,  or  sedges.  The  secondary 
or  rock  formation  is  divided  into  three  great  portions, 
namely,  the  Cretaceous  or  Chalk,  the  Jurassic  and 
Trias  formation.  We  will  proceed  first  to  examine 
that  assemblage  of  rocks  which  were  deposited  or  derived 
from  the  interior  of  the  earth  at  the  particular  geological 
epoch  in  which  chalk  was  deposited,  and  called 

The  Cretaceous  or  Chalk  Formation.  This  struc- 
ture, evidently  formed  by  marine  agency,  is  composed  of 
cretaceous  matter,  or  chalk  resting  on  a  basis  of  sandstone. 
Calcareous  Tufa  (Spar)  or  Carbonate  of  Lime,  is  a  fria- 
ble, chalk-like  substance,  of  a  yellow  or  grayish-white 
color ;  in  some  locations  found  so  soft  that  it  is  reduced 
to  powder  by  merely  atmospheric  influence,  but  in  others 
it  forms  a  solid  limestone,  of  so  firm  a  structure  that  it 
is  used  for  building  purposes.  Among  several  varieties 
we  will  only,  in  this  place,  notice  a  few. 

Chalk,  or  White  Granular  Limestone,  is  mostly 
yellowish-white,  but  is  often  also  found  of  a  reddish  hue, 
and  is  then  of  a  firmer  structure  than  the  commercial 
article  known  as  chalk.  It  contains  a  considerable 
portion  of  flint,  and  forms  the  white  chalk  clifls  on 
the  shores  of  England,  whence  that  country  receives 
the  name  of  Albion.  Occasional  strata  of  Gypsum 
(Plaster  of  Paris)  and  Rock-salt  occur  in  the  cretaceous 
formation ;  the  first  is  found  at  Segeberg,  in  Holstein, 
and  at  Leineberg,  in  Hanover,  and  the  last  in  Catalonia. 


MINERALOGY.  407 

It  contains  the  fossil  remains  of  mollusks  in  great  num- 
bers and  variety.* 

THE  JURA  FORMATION. 

The  assemblage  of  sedimentary  rocks,  to  Avhich  has 
been  given  the  name  of  the  Jurassic  Formation,  com- 
pose the  foundations  of  the  Swiss  and  Suabian  Alps, 
and  form  the  most  remarkable  strata  of  the  Jura.  The 
first  of  these  layers  which  claims  our  observation  is  the 
calcareous  matter  or  structure  called  coral  chalk,  or  coral 
rag,  which  is  a  great  porous  net-work,  composed  of  coral- 
lifercB,  which  belonged  to  an  antediluvian  Avorld,  and  are 
remarkable  as  forming  numerous  cavernous  fissures  or 
structures,  which  often  contain  mineral  treasures.  We 
shall  mention  a  few  of  the  most  important.! 

Bohn-ertz — Bog  Iron  Ore — Limonite,  a  loose,  earthy 
ore  ;  is  found  in  veins,  or  arched  beds,  and  often  repre- 
sents large  globular  masses,  containing,  although  mixed 
with  much  silicious  earth,  two-thirds  its  own  weight  of 
pure  iron.  Occurs  connected  with  rocks  of  all  ages,  but 
is  mostly  found  below  the  tertiary  rocks ;  however,  in 
many  parts  of  the  Suabian  Alps  it  lies  so  closely  beneath 
the  upper  surface  as  scarcely  to  be  concealed. 

Oolite,  also  called  Roestone,  because  it  is  composed 
of  small  globules  resembling  the  roe  of  fishes,  is  of  a 
light  brown  or  whitish-ochery  color,  seldom  gray,  but 
sometimes  blue ;  a  variety  of  common  limestone,  usually 
found  in  the  conformable  position  of  strong  stratifications, 

*  The  greatest  deposit  of  Gypsum  is  that  of  Paris,  and  extends 
twenty  leagues.  It  is  noticed  as  singular  that,  throughout  the  extent 
of  the  two  Americas,  not  a  specimen  of  chalk  has  been  found. 

f  See  Macculloch  on  Coral  Formations,  vol.  i.  33*7. 


408  NATUKAL   HISTORY. 

in  banks  superincumbent  on  chalk  beds,  frequently  mixed 
with  Kalkspath*  and  Hornstone.  The  globules  compos- 
ing it  are  sometimes  very  minute  and  fine,  at  others, 
coarse  and  granular.  Peastone  or  Pisolite  differs  only 
from  Oolite  in  the  larger  size  of  its  particles,  which  are 
composed  of  concentric  laminae. 

Iron  Roestone,  also  one  of  the  Oolitic  group,  com- 
posed of  chalk  and  marl,  is  rough,  of  a  bluish-gray  color, 
and  consists  of  sprinkles  of  lenticular  globules,  contain- 
ing much  iron ;  it  is  also  called  Clay  Ironstone  ;  very 
hard.  Found  largely  in  Germany,  Poland,  and  Russia. 

Lias — Gryphite  Limestone — (Magnesian  Limestone 
of  England) ,  consists  of  dark-colored  strata  or  layers,  in 
which  an  argillaceous  character  (nature  of  clay)  pre- 
dominates, but  is  also  remarkable  for  a  quantity  of  cal- 
careous matter  mingled  with  the  clay,  and  particularly 
distinguished  by  the  fossil  remains  of  numerous  Gry- 
phites. 

Lias  Sandstone,  is  a  yellow  and  brown  sandstone, 
found  in  alternate  layers  with  limestone  and  marl.  Both 
of  these  strata  contain  bitumen  and  naptha,  which  flows 
through  them ;  pyrites,  bisulphuret  of  iron,  and  sulphur 
springs  are  also  present  in  this  formation.  This  bitu- 
minous fluid,  also  called  animal  oil,  found  in  the  Lias 
strata,  is  of  great  importance  at  the  present  time,  and 
useful  in  the  manufacture  of  gas,  being  supposed  to  be 
the  product  of  millions  of  perished  marine  animals,  whose 
oily  portions  are  now  used  in  this  form  to  light  up  our 
chambers  and  our  streets.  Naptha  affords  both  fuel 
and  light  to  the  inhabitants  of  Badku,  on  the  Caspian. 

Jura  Dolomite,  or  Bitter  Spar,  is  remarkable  as  con- 

*  Calcareous  Spar. 


MINERALOGY.  409 

taining  a  considerable  quantity  of  bitter  earth,  and  for  its 
wonderful  conformations,  which  claim  the  admiration  of 
every  beholder,  as  presented  in  the  various  shapes  of 
rocks,  castles,  walls,  pillars,  and  ruins  of  old  towers,  and 
mountain  fortresses.  Used  for  many  purposes,  on  account 
of  its  water-resisting  nature,  hardening  when  immersed. 
It  serves  principally,  however,  for  making  mortars  or 
molds. 

111. — TRIAS  FORMATION.     (  Upper  New  Red  Sand- 
stone of  the  English  Geologists.} 

The  Trias  Formation,  now  about  to  be  described,  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  deficiency  or  poverty  of  the  lime  or  chalk 
principle,  with  the  single  exception  of  Muschelkalk  (Shell 
Limestone).  The  Trias  system  of  the  French  and  Ger- 
man geologists,  so  named  because  it  is  composed  of  three 
kinds  of  rocks,  is  supposed  to  be  constituted  by  new 
deposits  formed  around  the  base  of  the  hills  after  the 
elevation  of  Vosges,  Black  Forest,  etc.,  by  geological 
convulsions,  which  occurred  after  the  previous  formations 
we  have  partially  described.  The  stones  of  this  system 
are  made  up  of  clay  and  sand,  and  mostly  of  a  red  color. 
The  most  important  specimens  are,  first, 

The  Keuper  Sandstone,  with  Marl.  Resting  directly 
above  this  species  of  rock  is  found  another  strata  of  sand- 
stone, which  is  white,  coarse-grained,  soft,  and  so  easily 
pulverized,  that  it  is  used  for  various  domestic  purposes. 
To  this  succeeds  marl  (argillaceous  carbonate  lime),  found 
in  successive  layers  between  the  sandstone,  and  is  of  blue 
or  red  color  ;  next  comes  the  genuine  Keuper  Sandstone, 
which  furnishes  excellent  building  materials ;  sometimes 
it  is  red,  at  others  greenish -white.  Distinguished  by 
18 


410  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

geologists  as  a  group  of  sandy  marl,  and  remarkable  for 
numerous  fossil  vegetable  remains,  mostly  those  of  the 
Equisetum  (Horse-tail)  and  Reed  families.  A  kind  of 
carboniferous  clay  or  limestone  is  occasionally  met  with 
in  this  formation,  but  is  little  valued. 

Variegated  Marl,  with  Gypsum  frequently  found  in- 
stratified  -with  the  upper  layers,  is  composed  of  indurated 
clays  of  various  colors.  Gypsum  is  found  in  separate 
strata ;  is  mostly  red.  but  sometimes,  although  rarely, 
white  as  alabaster. 

Letlen-koklej  Germ.,  Clay  Slate  Coal.  Lying  under 
the  lowest  strata  of  the  Keuper  Sandstone,  and  easily 
recognized  by  its  light  gray  color,  this  species  of  coal  is 
found  in  company  with  marl,  gypsum,  and  alum-slate. 
It  is  impure,  clayey,  fissile,  and,  in  coming  in  contact 
with  the  air,  splits  off  into  laminae  ;  occurs  only  in  schis- 
tose strata,  and  can  not  be  used  for  burning. 

Muschelkalk — Conchylian  Limestone — (shell-chalk) 
lies  under  the  Lettenkohle  marls  in  strong  layers,  which 
represent  huge,  compact  masses  of  limestone ;  is  of  a 
dull  gray  or  dark  greenish-gray  color,  and  commonly 
contains,  in  great  abundance,  the  remains  of  shells  and 
fragments  of  radiated  animals  and  fishes.  As  it  admits 
of  a  fine  polish,  it  is  often  used  for  table-slabs,  etc. 
Dolomite,  or  carbonate  of  magnesia,  is  often  found  super- 
incumbent above  muschelkalk ;  and  mineral  springs 
abound  in  this  formation,  as  well  as  immense  strata  of 
rock  salt,  which  occur  directly  under  the  beds  of  shell 
chalk. 

Rock  Salt  is  mostly  associated  with  gypsum,  anchy- 
drytes,  or  sulphate  of  lime  (clay,  sandstone,  and  calcar- 
eous spar) ;  in  Europe,  however,  it  usually  occurs  in  the 
new  red  sandstone,  or  associated  with  red  marl,  but  is  not 


MINERALOGY.  411 

confined  to  these  rocks.  Most  of  our  cooking  salt  is  pre- 
pared from  this  species  of  rock  salt.  There  is  a  lower 
series  of  tertiary  formation,  lying  directly  beneath,  or 
forming  the  lowest  strata  of  Conchylian  Limestone 
(Germ.  Wellenkalk) ,  distinguished  by  its  beautifully 
waved  veins  and  irregularly  distributed  lines,  alternate 
with  marl,  etc. 

The  Bunter  Sandstein — New  Red  Sandstone  of 
English  writers  (Gres  Bigarre  of  the  French),  which 
forms  the  base  of  the  Triassic  system  both  in  France  and 
Germany  is  a  fine-grained,  quartzose,  sandy  deposit,  and 
in  some  districts,  where  there  is  no  representative  of  the 
magnesian  limestone,  takes  its  place,  and  rests  immedi- 
ately on  the  Rot  he  todte-liegende.  It  is  found  in  immense 
rocky  strata,  mostly  of  a  red  color,  but  in  many  districts 
exhibits  a  variegated  mixture  of  red,  blue,  or  greenish 
tints,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  The  grotesque 
shapes  assumed  by  the  precipitous  crags  of  this  species 
of  rock  is  picturesque  in  the  highest  degree. 


FOURTH  ORDER. 

TRANSITION    FORMATION* 

Between  the  primitive  and  stratified  mountain  are 
found  extensive  deposits  which  consist  of  alternating  strata, 
and  present  us  with  the  first  traces  of  the  existence  of 
living  beings,  whose  organic  remains  have  been  discov- 
ered in  a  fossil  state,  entombed  in  certain  of  these  forma- 
tions whose  antiquity  dates  back  to  this  remote  epoch. 

*  Designated  by  modern  geologists  as  the  Primary  Fossilifer- 
ous  Formation.  Also  called  paleozoic,  because  they  contain  animal 
remains. — Tr. 


412  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

The  rocks  of  this  order  are  of  various  degrees  of  solidity, 
all  equally  showing  strong  evidences  of  their  sedimentary 
origin,  yet  some  exhibit  evidences  of  having  been  sub- 
jected to  a  more  powerful  chemical  action  than  others, 
and  consequently  are  more  crystalline  in  their  structure. 
We  will  commence  a  description  of  this  formation  with 

The  (Kupfer-shiefer)  Copper-slate  and  Zeckstem 
(mine-stone)  formations,  which  consist  of  calcareous  mat- 
ter, mingled  with  sandstone.  It  is  usual  to  find  a  stra- 
tum of  bituminous  Shale  lying  directly  under  the 
Bunter  Sandstone  (new  red),  upon  which  is  superposed 
an  argillaceous  structure  of  gray  or  blue-black  Anthra- 
conite  or  fetid  limestone,  known  as  Graywacke.  Higher 
up  in  this  series  come  the  compact  limestones,  the  (zech- 
stein)  mine  stone,  separated  by  many  layers  of  black, 
resinous  schistose,  friable  marl,  mingled  with  copper  and 
iron  ores,  amid  which  salt  springs  arise.  Directly  suc- 
ceeding these  calcareous  strata,  we  find 

The  Rothe-liegende  also  called  Todt-liegende  (Germ.) 
red,  dead  lier,  so  named  because  it  is  of  a  red  color, 
underlies  the  metalliferous  strata,  and  is  dead  or  worth- 
less, as  containing  no  metallic  produce.*  These  deposits 


*  The  Plutonic  formations  have  received  this  name  because  they 
appear  to  be  the  product  of  the  action  of  fire,  are  generally  of  a 
dense  crystalline  structure,  and  ordinarily  form  immense  masses ;  they 
are  not  arranged  in  regularly  superposed  beds,  nor  do  they  contain 
the  remains  of  organized  bodies.  Some  of  them  are  formed  by  the 
action  of  volcanoes,  and  others  are  very  analogous  to  the  latter ;  they 
contain  not  only  minerals  peculiar  to  volcanic  ejections,  but  also  mat- 
ters produced  by  our  laboratories  and  furnaces.  They  seem  to  have 
formed  the  primitive  crust  of  the  globe,  for  \ve  find  them  beneath 
the  Neptunian  formations,  but  they  are  also  sometimes  spread  over 
the  surface  of  the  latter,  or  betwixt  the  different  beds  or  strata,  of 
which  they  are  composed. — RCSCHEX. — DAXA. — Tr. 


MINERALOGY.  413 

which  are  indicative  of  great  movements  in  the  waters, 
constitute  the  formation  designated  by  geologists  under 
the  names  of  Red  Conglomerate,  New  Red  Sandstone, 
Rothe  Todt-liegende,  etc.  They  frequently  form  layers 
six  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  and- contain  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  families  of  Algae  or  Coniferae,  but  scarcely 
ever  any  remains  of  organized  beings. 

The  Carboniferous  Formation  embraces  the  exten- 
sive deposit  of  the  Coal  Measures,  which,  especially  in 
England,  are  found  in  different  gradations  and  in  im- 
mense masses.  They  are  mostly  rendered  impure  by 
the  great  quantity  of  sulphur  they  contain,  and  therefore 
coal-mines  are  subject  to  take  fire  from  spontaneous 
combustion,  as  the  sulphur  becomes  heated  and  as  the 
gases  evolved  from  it  are  highly  inflamable,  they  ignite 
in  coming  in  contact  with  air  or  vapor,  and  communicat- 
ing their  flame  to  the  surrounding  strata  or  beds  of  coal, 
large  fires  are  kindled  among  them.  Stone-coal  is  evi- 
dently nothing  more  or  less  than  the  remains  of  the 
primitive  forests  reduced,  in  antediluvian  times,  to  the 
present  form  by  the  severe  action  of  fire. 

The  Silurian  Formation  or  System  is  subdivided 
into  three  principal  sections.  The  upper  section  consists 
principally  of  Clay  Slate  or  Shale,  Gray  wacke,  and  Sand- 
stone, placed  in  strata,  which  alternate  with  one  another. 
Limestone  is  often  found  among  the  clay  slate  strata. 
No  organic  remains  exist  in  this  formation,  but  perfectly 
developed  fossilified  mollusks  and  zoophytes,  Pectcn 
grandcevus,  Avicule  lepida,  and  Goniatidce  are  frequent. 
The  middle  section  is  occupied  chiefly  by  a  compact,  cal- 
careous rock  of  a  dark  color,  made  up  of  different  shades 
of  gray,  and  used  under  the  name  marble,  as  the  Black 
Marble  of  Corsica.  To  this  formation  also  belong  the 


414  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

rEiffel,  Strigocephalus,  and  Cornita  marbles.  The  lower 
section,  which  is  made  up  of  Graywacke,  Clay  Slate, 
Sandstone,  and  Limestone,  also  composes  the  principal 
feature  of  the  old  carboniferous  deposits  found  in  the 
Graywacke  and  Clay  .Slate  formations  of  the  Rhenish 
territory,  so  rich  in  the  fossil  remains  of  the  oldest  times, 
and  called  the  Paleozoic  formation,  are  found  in  various 
strata  in  the  Eiffel,  Ardennes,  and  Maas  region.  In 
Sweden,  where  this  formation  also  exists,  are  found  lay- 
ers of  Alum  Slate  and  Bituminous  Shale,  alternated  with 
banks  of  Swinestone,  more  generally  termed  fetid  lime- 
stone. In  England0  this  formation  is  particularly  ex- 
tensive. The  lowest  section  of  the  Silurian  system  are 
the  rocks  which  form 

The  Cambrian  or  Schistose  System,  and  are  the 
lowest  sedimentary  deposits  known.  The  first  stratum 
consists  of  Graywackes,  Schistose  Clay,  Conglomerates  (a 
rock  composed  of  pebbles),  and  dark  Limestone.  The 
Clay  Slate  rocks  are  hard,  dark -colored,  and  split  easily, 
therefore  are  used  in  place  of  shingles  for  roofing ;  coral- 
lines and  fucoides  are  occasionally  present.  The  Gray- 
wacke slate  is  firm  but  very  coarse-grained,  occasionally 
laminate,  enclosing  fragments  of  clay  slate.  This  system 
of  strata  is  developed  on  a  grand  scale,  extending  many 
thousand  feet  in  width  and  thickness.  The  second  stra- 
tum is  composed  of  Balakalk,  which  is  an  argillaceous 
rock  formation  made  up  of  dark,  thick  limestone  and 
clay  slate,  is  of  inconsiderable  extent  or  depth,  and  con- 
tains but  few  fossil  remains,  which  are  those  of  the  Tere- 

*  Receives  its  name  from  the  Siluri,  the  ancient  Britons,  •who  in- 
habited the  region  where  these  strata  are  most  distinctly  developed, 
and  is  next  above  the  Cambrian,  -which  is  so  called  from  Cambria,  the 
original  name  of  Wales. 


MINERALOGY.  415 

bratula  and  coral  genera ;  the  former  supposed  to  be  the 
representatives  of  the  very  first  inhabitants  created  in  the 
first-formed  ocean.  The  third  section  of  the  Cambrian 
group  consists  of  various-colored  clay  slate  earths,  with 
laminated  rocks  of  pure  and  fine-grained  slates,  iriterstra- 
tified  with  graywacke  and  silicious  conglomerates  is  often 
several  thousand  feet  in  extent  and  depth  and  also  con- 
tains a  few  corals  and  terebratulae. 


SECOND     CLASS. 

UNSTRATIFIED    ROCKS    OR    MASSIVE    IGNEOUS    ROCK 
FORMATION. 

FIRST   ORDER. 

PRIMITIVE      MOUNTAINS      OR     ROCKS. 

By  the  name  of  primitive  mountains  are  meant  those 
massive  elevations  which  are  the  consequences  of  those 
great  upheavals  which,  proceeding  from  the  heart  of  the 
earth,  changed  its  first  arrangement  and  aided  materially 
to  give  it  its  present  form.  Everywhere  the  strata  of. 
the  primary  rock  formation,  no  longer  occupying  their 
horizontal  position,  but  broken  through,  distorted,  frac- 
tured or  inclined,  give  striking  evidence  of  the  great 
overthrow.  In  many  places  where  they  have  not  been 
exactly  ruptured  by  the  upheaving  force  exerted  from 
below,  their  immense  fragments  are  irregularly  raised 
up,  and  on  the  borders  of  those  huge  masses  exposed  to 
view,  exhibit  undeniable  proofs  of  their  igneous  origin 


416  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

from  the  masses  of  half  fused  mineral  matter  spread 
over  them,  and  then  suddenly  cooled. 

They  consist  principally  of  Feldspar,  Quartz,  Mica, 
and  occasionally  Hornblende,  are  frequently  so  crystal- 
line in  structure  as  to  plainly  exhibit  the  beautiful  min- 
eral materials  which  compose  them.  The  metallic  veins 
found  in  this  formation  appear  originally  to  have  been 
fissures,  often  passing  through  different  beds  of  rock, 
and  which  were  subsequently  filled  with  metallic  ores. 
They  exist  in  primitive,  transition,  and  secondary  rocks, 
but  are  most  common  in  the  former ;  metallic  veins  often 
change  their  metals  at  different  depths  and  also  their 
dimensions.* 

The  most  ancient  portion  of  this  formation,  the  earliest 
deposit  on  the  first  massive  crust  of  the  earth,  is  crys- 
talline, namely,  granite,  which  seems  to  form  a  basis  for 
the  whole  geological  structure  ;  gniess — syenite — which 
consists  of  feldspar,  hornblende,  and  quartz :  much  re- 
sembles granite;  porphyry,  serpentine,  and  greenstone, 
the  different  varieties  and  properties  of  which  shall  be 
described  when  we  enter  upon  the  field  of  special  miner- 
alogy. 


*  Many  theories  are  had  respecting  their  origin.  The  earlier  and 
some  of  the  modern  geologists  (Dr.  Hutton,  etc.)  supposed  that  the 
metals  were  forced  into  their  veins  in  a  fused  state,  the  expansive 
force  of  the  heat  producing  their  fissures.  This  is  called  the  igneous 
theory  of  the  mineral  veins.  The  aqueous  theory,  which  is  that  of  the 
celebrated  Werner  and  his  followers,  is,  that  the  fissures  of  dykes 
and  veins  were  produced  by  the  shrinking  of  the  rocks  in  wliich  they 
are  contained,  and  that  the  metallic  veins  were  afterwards  filled  with 
the  metals  in  a  state  of  solution  poured  in  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth.— Tr. 


MINEKA-LOGY.  417 

SECOND    ORDER. 

VOLCANIC    ROCKS. 

Whilst  the  primitive  rocks  were  gradually  thrown  up 
from  the  interior  of  the  earth,  partly  through  igneous 
and  partly  through  aqueous  agency,  which  extended  over 
the  whole  surface  of  the  globe,  the-  Volcanic  or  Trap 
Rock  Formation  appears  to  have  been  produced,  by  a 
single  eruption  of  fused  matter,  thrown  out  from  the 
bowels  of  the  earth  by  a  strong  subterranean  power. 
Before  we  proceed  to  describe  the  Trachytic  or  Igneous 
Rock  Formation,  let  us  examine  the  volcanic  agency 
which  produced  them.  Volcanic  crests  or  hills  are  gen- 
erally steep,  rugged,  conical  elevations,  sometimes  isolated 
or  arranged  several  together  on  a  line,  with  crateriform 
cavities  on  the  summit,  and  deep  internal  fissures,  that 
communicate  with  the  internal  portion  of  the  earth, 
which  is  still  considered  to  be  in  an  igneous  state.  A 
continued  melting  process,  like  that  of  an  active  furnace, 
is  always  going  on,  from  which  abundance  of  gaseous 
matter  is  disengaged.  The  water  penetrating  these  sub- 
terranean cavities  filled  with  fused  metallic  or  mineral 
matter  is  converted  into  steam,  which,  pressing  upon  the 
lava,  forces  it  upwards.  It  then  breaks  forth  in  eruptive 
explosions,  throwing  out  showers  of  stones,  vapor,  ashes, 
and  melted  lava.  The  craters  are  of  various  but  always 
of  considerable  depths,  reaching  from  one  hundred  to 
three  hundred  fathoms. 

As    volcanic    eruptions   present   various    phenomena, 
sometimes  splendidly  picturesque,  at  others  terrific  and 
appalling,  they  are  collectively  classed,  under  three  heads, 
as  appearing  at  three  different  periods. 
18* 


418  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

First  Period.  A  short  time  before  the  catastrophe 
or  outbreak  commences,  a  dull,  rumbling  noise  is  heard, 
as  occurring  far  down  in  the  earth ;  tremblings  more  or 
less  violent  are  sure  to  succeed ;  these  shakings  continue 
for  a  shorter  or  longer  time,  at  irregular  intervals.  These 
movements  of  the  earth  are  of  different  kinds;  sometimes  in 
horizontal  oscillations,  at  others  in  successive  rising  and 
falling  of  the  soil,  often  jerking  and  twisting  as  if  tortured 
by  some  internal  agony,  and  are  not  less  dangerous  than 
open  eruption.  If  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea,  the 
waters,  violently  agitated,  sometimes  advance  far  inward, 
making  fearful  irruptions  on  the  coasts,  at  others  retreat- 
ing so  far  outward  as  to  leave  their  foundations  exposed. 
At  such  times  the  air  is  hot,  dry,  and  oppressive. 

Second  Period.  Whilst  the  subterranean  rumblings 
continue,  and  the  tremblings  of  the  earth  seems  to  threaten 
a  removal  from  its  firm  foundations,  the  melted  lava  is, 
like  boiling  fluid  in  a  caldron,  rising  to  the  top  of  the 
crater,  -whence — or  else  by  fissures  in  the  side  of  the 
mountain — it  pours  forth  in  streams  of  liquid  fire.  Col- 
umnar volumes  of  fire  rise  like  gigantic  pillars  above  the 
crater,  amid  which  are  seen  jets  of  large  red  hot  stones, 
ashes,  and  sand,  hurled  with  Titanic  force  from  two  to 
three  thousand  feet  in  the  air.  The  stream  of  lava  is 
enveloped  in  a  dark  cloud  of  smoke  :  at  the  same  time 
immense  volumes  of  steam,  or  aqueous  vapor,  are  evolved. 
Clouds  of  fiery  volcanic  dust,  sand,  and  ashes,  or  pumice, 
fall  everywhere,  even  to  a  great  distance,  like  rain,  whilst 
loud  grumblings,  like  thunder,  and  fearful  subterranean 
explosions  issuing  from  the  mountain,  shake  the  earth  to 
its  very  center.  After  the  overflowing  of  the  melted 
lava,  these  commotions  gradually  cease,  the  volume  and 
force  of  the  fiery  stream  gradually  diminish,  after  hav- 


MINERALOGY.  419 

ing  destroyed  every  thing  in  its  way,  and  at  length  the 
tumult  ceases,  and  all  is  still. 

Third  Period.  After  the  volcano  has  become  quiet, 
and  the  smoke  and  flame  has  abated,  new  thunderings.  like 
the  firing  of  heavy  cannon,  new  explosions  and  tremblings 
commence,  amid  which  a  majestic  pillar  of  smoke  ascends 
from  the  crater  to  a  great  height,  and  spreads  an  ex- 
tended broad,  dark  canopy  over  the  whole  mountain. 
Spectators  have  likened  this  singular  and  striking  phe- 
nomenon to  a  gigantic  pine.  A  steady  rain  or  shower  of 
stones,  fine  volcanic  dust,  and  pumice,  or  gray  particles 
of  lava,  now  fall  from  the  black,  overhanging  cloud  which 
canopies  the  mountain,  extending  to  a  considerable  dis- 
tance and  obscuring  %the  light  of  the  sun.  This  shower 
of  ashes  often  continues  for  many  days,  after  which,  ac- 
companied by  crashing  thunder  and  vivid  electric  flashes, 
a  dark  cloud  settles  upon  the  crown  of  the  mountain. 
Torrents  of  rain,  the  effect  of  condensed  vapors,  now 
begin  to  fall,  and  from  the  inundations  of  mud  which 
they  cause  are  dreaded  as  being  more  disastrous  in  their 
consequences  than  the  streams  of  burning  lava,  and  close 
the  scene.  After  such  fearful  eruptions,  various  hurtful 
gases  are  generated,  and  issuing  from  the  crater,  pollute 
the  air  for  miles  around.  The  principal  volcanic  forma- 
tions are,  first, 

Lava,  which,  when  cooled,  exhibits  no  regular  struc- 
ture ;  sometimes  it  is  firm  and  compact  above,  at  others 
porous,  cellular,  or  scoriaceous.  There  are  also  speci- 
mens of  lava  which  constitute  regular  rocklike  masses  ; 
the  colors  are  mostly  brownish-yellow  or  greenish-gray  • 
some,  not  seldom,  contain  mineral  substances,  as  Obsidian 
(volcanic  glass),  etc. 

Pumice  Stine — Bimstein — is  a  light,  porous  scoria, 


420  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

or  foatn-like  stone,  produced  by  volcanoes,  and,  from  its 
light,  spongy  structure,  swims  on  the  surface  of  'water. 

Pozzuolana  is  a  kind  of  tufa  (a  sand  rock,  consisting 
of  volcanic  material,  either  cinders  or  the  comminuted 
lava)  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome,  and  is  much  valued, 
as,  mixed  with  chalk  or  lima,  it  hardens  in  water.  It  is 
of  great  importance  in  the  manufacture  of  molds  or  plaster 
images.  Trass,  used  for  the  same  purposes,  is  but. a 
variety  of  the  foregoing.  Both  form  a  hydraulic  cement. 

Trap  Basalt — Basalts  which  resemble  Trappean  of 
peculiar  formation,  their  columnar  structure  being  a 
remarkable  characteristic.  They  usually  stand  nearly 
perpendicular,  their  structure  divided  into  regular  prisms, 
with  sides  varying  from  three  to  eight,  but  mostly  five  or 
six.  This  irregularity  appears  to  have  been  caused  by 
objects  or  other  substances  found  in  the  path  of  the  fluid 
basalt,  which  is  compact  lava,  as  the  basaltic  pillars  ex- 
hibit more  regularity  at  their  bases.  The  texture  of 
basalt  is  fine-grained  and  compact,  and  often  contains 
fragments  of  other  minerals  imbedded  in  it,  such  as  feld- 
spar, quartz,  mica  leucite,  and  oxide  of  iron,  which  were 
broken  or  scaled  off  from  their  original  rocks  by  the  vol- 
canic eruption,  and  borne  along  in  the  stream  of  fluid  or 
semifluid  lava.  Wherever  basalts  are  found  in  crevices 
or  fissures  of  other  rock  formations,  they  are  observed  to 
retain  their  prismatic  and  pillar-like  form,  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  caused  by  some  peculiar  atmospheric  influence 
during  their  cooling.  They  also  exhibit  hollow  cavities 
or  vesicles,  apparently  formed  by  bubbles  of  air  during 
their  fusion.  The  Giant's  Causeway,  in  the  North  of 
Ireland,  is  composed  of  basaltic  columns. 


MINERALOGY.  421 


SPECIAL    MINERALOGY. 

Whilst  Geology  considers  minerals  as  dependent  rela- 
tions constituting  soils,  and  treats  of  their  various  rocks 
only  as  associated  in  the  structure  of  the  earth,  it  is  the 
object  of  Special  Mineralogy  to  consider  them  as  inde- 
pendent bodies,  and  to  describe  the  individual  qualities 
of  the  several  mineral  species,  very  few  of  which,  al- 
though daily  met  with,  are  to  most  only  known  by 
name.  Preliminary  to  a  particular  discussion  of  their 
characteristic  structure  or  uses,  we  will  remark  that 
they  all  have  in  common  three  peculiar  properties,  vary- 
ing, however,  very  considerably  in  the  different  species 
to  which  they  belong,  as  exhibited  in  each  individual. 
The  terms  by  which  these  properties  are  distinguished 
are  Fracture,  Degree  of  Hardness,  and  Specific 
Gravity. 

By  Fracture,  which  is  of  several  kinds,  is  meant  the 
appearance  of  the  mineral  when  broken ;  for  instance, 
Conchoidal,  when  the  mineral  breaks  with  a  curved  and 
convex  or  concave  surface  of  fracture,  resembling  the  in- 
side of  a  shell ;  flint  is  a  good  example.  Uneven,  when 
the  surface  of  the  fracture  is  rough,  with  numerous 
small  elevations  and  depressions.  Brittle,  when  the 
parts  of  the  mineral  separate  into  powder  on  attempting 
to  cut  it.  Even,  when  the  surface  of  the  fracture  is 
nearly  or  quite  flat.  Malleable,  when  slices  may  be 
cut  off  or  splintered,  and  Hackly,  when  the  elevations 
are  sharp  or  jagged,  as  in  broken  iron. 

In  order  to  give  a  definite  character  to  the  results  ob- 
tained with  respect  to  the  hardness  of  minerals,  a  scale 


422  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

of  hardness  has  been  introduced  which  serves  as  a  stand- 
ard of  comparison.  It  is  only  necessary  to  draw  the  file 
across  the  specimen,  or  scratch  one  with  another,  and  the 
comparative  hardness  is  easily  ascertained.  The  follow- 
ing scale  consists  of  ten  minerals  which  gradually  in- 
crease in  hardness  as  the  ciphers  advance,  that  is 
1  to  10. 

1.  Talc.  6.  Feldspar. 

2.  Rock  Salt  or  Gypsum.  7.  Quart/. 

3.  Calcareous  Spar.  8.  Topaz. 

4.  Fluor  Spar.  9.  Sapphire. 

5.  Apatite.  10.  Diamond. 

Rock  Salt  is  usually  in  the  scale  of  hardness  for  No. 
2,  and  if,  on  drawing  a  file  across  a  mineral,  it  is  im- 
pressed as  easily  as  rock-salt,  the  hardness  is  said  to  be 
two ;  if  as  easily  as  Feldspar,  the  hardness  is  6  ;  rock- 
salt,  for  instance,  is  written  thus :  H.  =  2,0.  -  If  the 
file  abrades  the  mineral  with  the  same  ease  as  No.  6, 
Feldspar,  and  produces  an  equal  depth  of  abrasion  with 
the  same  force,  its  hardness  is  said  to  be  6.  If  with 
more  facility  than  6,  but  less  than  7,  that  marks  the 
difference  and  is  thus  written,  6  =  7. 

The  specific  gravity  of  a  mineral  is  its  weight,  com- 
pared with  that  of  another  substance  of  equal  volume, 
whose  gravity  is  taken  at  unity.  For  solids  and  liquids, 
distilled  water  at  60°  Fahrenheit  is  the  standard  ordin- 
arily used ;  and  if  a  mineral  weighs  twice  as  much  as 
water,  its  specific  gravity  is  2 :  if  three  times,  3  ;  and  is 
thus  written  :  Quartz,  G.  =  2,  7,  which  means  that 
Quartz  is  2,  7  ,  times  heavier  than  a  .  corresponding 
bulk  of  water.  Minerals  are  divided  into  four  classes : 
1.  Earthy  Minerals ;  2.  Salts :  3.  Carboniferous  Min- 
erals ;  4.  Metallic  Ores  or  Metals. 


MINERALOGY.  423 

FIRST     CLASS. 

EARTHY    MINERALS     OR    EARTHS. 

This  class  of  minerals  comprehends  those  structures 
•which  are  insoluble  in  water,  and  remain  unaltered  by 
any  common  igneous  action  or  force. 

FIRST     ORDER. 


I.  Quartz.  Mostly  white  or  vitreous,  crystalline, 
transparent,  sometimes  only  diaphanous  ;  fracture  con- 
choidal,  emits  light  when  rubbed  in  the  dark,  II.  =  7.0. 
G.  2.5  to  2.7.  Quartz  is  a  constituent  of  many  rocks, 
and  is  found  almost  everywhere  in  the  form  of  pebbles 
or  gravel. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  which  the  most  prominent 
specimen  is 

The  Rock  Crystal  or  Pure  Pellucid  Quartz,  which 
is  very  transparent ;  found  in  high  mountain  regions 
among  granite,  gneiss,  etc.,  in  vaulted  openings,  resem- 
bling small  caves,  which  are  filled  with  these  beautiful 
crystals.  These  vaults,  called  Crystal-cellars,  hidden 
away  among  rocks,  are  commonly  discovered  only  by 
accident ;  many  of  them  are  found  to  contain  crystals 
valued  at  ten  thousand  florins.  Pure  pellucid  crystals 
are  often  found  in  rivers,  which,  when  polished,  present 
a  brilliant  appearance,  as,  for  instance,  -the  White  Stones 
of  the  Rhine.  The  species  of  crystal  known  as  Marowyn 
Stone  is  found  in  the  rivers  which  divide  French  and 
Dutch  Guiana.  Although  seldom  of  weight  reaching 


424  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

to  one  hundred,  the  rock  crystal  is  very  valuable  ;  in 
ancient  times  it  was  made  into  cups  and  vases.  Nero, 
on  hearing  of  the  revolt  that  caused  his  ruin  is  said  to 
have  dashed  to  pieces  two  cups  of  this  kind,  one  of  which 
cost  him  a  sum  equal  to  three  thousand  dollars.  They 
are  of  various  colors ;  the  yellow  is  called  Citrin  or 
False  Topaz ;  the  brown  or  smoky  quartz,  Cairngorm 
Stone;  the  black  Morion.  The  pure  specimens  are  cut, 
set  in  gold,  and  used  as  jewelry  ;  the  imperfect  or  lower 
varieties  are  employed  in  glass  making. 

The  Amethyst,  a  beautiful  variety  of  rock  crystal,  is 
transparent ;  color  purple  or  bluish-violet,  sometimes 
pearl-gray  or  greenish-white,  is  often,  like  the  above- 
mentioned,  found  in  mountain  regions ;  the  most  valuable 
of  this  family  of  gems,  however,  are  native  of  Siberia, 
Persia,  India,  and  Ceylon.  The  amethyst  received  its 
name  on  account  of  its  supposed  powers  against  intoxica- 
tion. It  is  always  set  in  gold  and  used  for  ornament,  as 
seal  rings,  etc.,  and  very  frequently  counterfeited  by  a 
substitution  of  colored  glass. 

Common  Quartz,  of  foul  color,  less  transparent  and 
vitreous,  is  found  everywhere,  and  together  with  sand- 
stone, is  the  principal  element  of  the  primary  rock  for- 
mation. The  most  remarkable  variety  is  the  Oafs  eye, 
a  translucent  chalcedony  of  a  light  greenish-gray  or  yel- 
lowish-brown color.  It  presents  a  peculiar  opalescence 
or  glaring  internal  reflections  when  cut,  which  reminds 
one  of  the  eyes  of  a  cat,  which  effect  is  owing  to  fila- 
ments of  asbestos.  Found  in  Ceylon  and  Hindostan, 
also  in  Treseburg  in  the  Hartz  Mountains  and  other 
places  in  the  elevated  portion  of  Germany.  Also  used 
for  jewelry. 

Chalcedony   is    of  several    varieties,    and   is   found 


MINERALOGY.  425 

opaque,  as  well  as  sub-transparent  or  translucent.  Frac- 
ture flat  conchoidal ;  crystalline  luster  subdued  and  waxy, 
is  of  different  colors  and  forms.  The  gray,  white,  and 
brown  varieties  are  called  Common  Chalcedony ;  often 
found  striated,  clouded,  or  with  moss-like  linear  mark- 
ings. Agate  is  variegated  chalcedony.  Moss  Agate  or 
Mocha  Stone  is  the  variety  with  dendritic  or  moss-like 
delineations.  When  the  colors  white  and  gray  alternate 
with  darker  shades  on  flat  horizontal  planes,  it  is  called 
Onyx.  Found  mostly  in  basaltic  formations  in  the 
regions  of  Baden,  Oppenau,  Black  Forest,  and  at  Chem- 
nitz in  Saxony. 

Cornelian  is  the  most  valuable  variety ;  of  a  clear 
bright  red  color,  or  sometimes  brownish  passing  into  yel- 
low through  grayish-red.  It  loses  its  color,  which,  it 
is  supposed,  is  due  to  oxyd  of  iron,  by  heat.  Both 
chalcedony  and  cornelian  are  much  used  for  ornament, 
as  seal  rings,  brooches,  etc. 

Flint  is  semi-opaque,  solid,  dense,  slightly  transpar- 
ent. Fracture  deeply  conchoidal ;  color  gray  or  smoky 
yellow,  sometimes  clouded.  Occurs  mostly  in  the  chalk 
formations,  namely  Champagne  and  England.  From  its 
peculiar  structure  the  working  of  flint  requires  great 
dexterity  with  the  hammer,  nevertheless  an  expert  flint 
mason  will  commonly  make  from  two  to  four  hundred 
flint  stones  per  diem. 

Hornstone — Chert.  Very  dense  and  firm,  more  brit- 
tle than  flint ;  its  fracture  is  splintery ;  color  outside 
greenish,  red,  or  brown ;  inside  foul  and  dull.  The 
petrified  remains  of  wood  are  easily  recognized  in  Horn- 
stone  structures.  Frequent  in  the  Erzgebirge  (Mineral 
Mountains),  Thuringia,  and  Black  Forest.  Used  for 


426  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

making  various  articles,  as  boxes,  handles  for  doors  or 
locks,  etc. 

Jasper  is  a  compact,  nearly  or  quite  opaque,  silicious 
rock  of  a  dull  red  or  yellow  color,  caused  by  its  contain- 
ing some  clay  and  yellow  or  red  oxyd  of  iron  ;  some 
varieties  are  of  green  and  other  shades.  It  mostly 
occurs  in  the  form  of  globular  stones  which,  on  being 
cut  or  sawed  through,  exhibit  innumerable  delineations 
of  color  and  shapes.  There  are  many  species  of  jasper, 
all  of  which  are  useful,  some  being  employed  in  paving, 
others  are  made  into  grind-stones,  and  the  black,  also 
called  Lydian  Stone, 

Basanite  or  Touch  Stone  is  used  for  trying  the 
purity  of  the  precious  metals.  Found  in  clay  strata  in 
the  Black  Forest,  Hartz,  Saxony,  and  Silesia.  Admits 
of  a  high  polish,  but  is  never  used  as  a  gem. 

Agate  is  a  composite  stone  made  up  of  chalcedony, 
jasper,  hornstone,  and  amethyst.  It  is  of  spherical 
form,  and  occurs  mostly  among  clay-porphyry.  Agate 
stones  are  frequently  hollow  and  contain  crystals  in  the 
cavities.  Native  in  the  elevated  mountain  formations, 
and  being  of  different  colors,  arranged  with  much  deli- 
cacy and  beauty,  it  is  made  into  seal-rings,  boxes,  etc. 

The  Opal  belongs  to  the  quartz  family,  is  milky, 
rather  than  crystalline,  brittle,  vitreous,  and  contains 
water,  H.  =  5.5  to  6.5,  O.  =  2.0  to  2.2.  Fracture 
conchoidal,  presents  internal  reflections ;  color  milk- 
white,  brown-green  or  gi'ay,  nearly  translucent,  passing 
into  opaque.  The  first  of  this  class  is 

The  Precious  or  Noble  Opal.  External  color  usually 
milky,  but  within  there  is  a  rich  play  of  delicate  tints 
passing  into  wine  color.  Was  known  to  the  ancients  and 
highly  valued  by  them,  was  called  paideros  or  child 


MINERALOGY.  427 

beautiful  as  love.  It  presents  opalescent  internal  reflec- 
tions of  the  most  beautiful  and  diversified  colors.  It 
occurs  in  irregular  veins  or  detached  masses  among  por- 
phyry, and  is  highly  valued  as  a  gem.  The  handsomest 
opals  are  those  found  in  Hungary. 

Common  Opal — Semi-Opal  has  a  greasy  luster  or 
translucence ;  structure  firm,  compact,  and  marbled ;  is 
slightly  resinous,  and  although  mostly  white,  is  of  vari- 
ous colors,  as  gray,  yellow,  and  green,  seldom  red  ; 
occurs  in  serpentine  and  basalt;  is  most  frequent  in 
Hungary,  Saxony,  and  Silesia.  It  receives  its  name  of 
Semi-Opal  on  account  of  its  duller  colors  and  being  less 
translucent. 

II. — Diamond.  Diamonds  are  distinguished  for  their 
perfect  transparency,  their  vitreous  electricity  when  rubbed 
or  placed  in  the  sun,  and  their  brilliant  reflections  of 
light  and  adamantine  luster.  The  composition  is  pure 
carbon,  but  on  account  of  its  external  resemblance  to  the 
Silicia  genus,  it  is  here  placed  among  the  minerals  which 
compose  that  species.  It  burns  and  is  consumed  at  a 
high  temperature,  producing  carbonic  acid  gas,  II.  =  10 
as  the  hardest  body,  G.  =  3.4  to  3.6.  Diamonds  occur 
chiefly  in  alluvial  deposits  of  gravel  and  sand,  lying  in 
detached  crystals,  sometimes  with  plain  but  more  fre- 
quently with  rounded  surfaces.  They  were  originally 
discovered  in  Bengal,  but  they  have  since  been  found  in 
the  East  Indies,  Brazil,  and  the  Ural  Mountains.  The 
perfectly  pure  diamond  is  as  transparent  as  water,  in 
which  state  it  is  known  as  a  "  diamond  of  the  first  water," 
and  commands  a  higher  or  lower  price  in  proportion  as  it 
falls  short  of  this  perfection.  Those  that  are  colored 
blue,  green,  red,  gray,  or  yellow,  are  less  esteemed  than 
the  transparent,  which,  being  considered  the  most  orna- 


428  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

mental,  always  bring  a  higher  price.  Most  exorbitant 
sums  are  paid  for  diamonds,  varying  according  to  their 
size,  pure  transparency,  and  lustrous  sparkle.  The 
most  remarkable  diamonds  are  the  following  (the  largest 
one  ever  known  was  brought  to  the  King  of  Portugal* 
from  Brazil,  and  uncut  weighs  1680  grs.,  valued  at 
.£5,644,800) : 

The  Regent,  which  belongs  to  the  crown  of  France, 
weighs  136  carats ;  that  of  the  Great  Mogul,  cut,  weighs 
275  carats,  valued  at  5,500,000  florins ;  that  of  the 
Raja  of  Matun  in  Borneo,  for  a  long  time  considered  the 
largest  known,  weighs  300  carats. 

Diamonds  are  regarded  as  the  noblest  and  most  bril- 
liant of  all  gems,  and  jewellers  cut  and  set  them  in  many 
shapes  for  ornamental  purposes,  as  brilliants  or  rose  dia- 
monds. Diamond  is  the  hardest  known  substance,  and 
can  be  cut  or  polished  only  by  its  own  dust  or  powder  ; 
hence  the  common  saying  of  "  diamond  cut  diamond." 
Fractured  portions  with  good  cutting  edges  are  used  for 
various  technical  purposes,  such  as  glaziers'  cutting  pen- 
cils or  pulverized  for  polishing  other  gems,  beside  being 
employed  in  various  ways  in  the  arts. 

False  diamonds,  the  preparation  of  which  is  accom- 
plished with  infinite  skill  by  newly  invented  processes, 
are  sometimes  substituted  in  place  of  the  true,  but  the 
imposition  is  easily  detected,  as,  being  so  much  softer, 
they  can  be  operated  upon  by  a  file  made  of  good  Eng- 
lish steel. 

*  Lately  supposed  to  be  a  topaz. 


MINERALOGY.  429 

SECOND    ORDER. 
ALUMINA    (CRYSTALLIZED). 

I. — Precious  minerals  belonging  the  the  Clay  Alu- 
mina. 

Corundum  of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  is, 
except  the  diamond,  the  hardest  substance  known  ; 
H.  =  9.0,  G.  —  3.9  to  4.0.  Found  in  large  crystals ; 
luster  translucent,  compact,  presents  internal  reflections 
only  in  certain  portions.  Corundum  or  the  Sapphire 
species  is  pure  alumina  crystallized ;  sometimes  found 
bright-colored,  mostly  grayish-brown,  seldom  colorless. 
Fracture  conchoidal,  imperfect  in  the  blue  variety ;  spe- 
cies easily  recognized  by  their  several  characteristics. 
The  dingy,  blue-gray  massive  variety  of  coarse  granular 
structure,  called  Emery,  is  found  in  large  boulders  in 
Saxony  and  the  island  of  Naxos.  From  its  extreme 
hardness  its  powder  is  largely  employed  in  the  polishing 
of  glass  and  metals,  and  in  the  cutting  of  gems  and 
other  minerals. 

Demantspath — Adamantine  Spar,  a  rough,  coarse, 
crystalline  stone  of  dingy  hue,  easily  divisible  from  the 
other  varieties,  is  employed  in  cutting  and  polishing  dia- 
monds. The  name  Sapphire  is  sometimes  used  for  the 
whole  coruncl  genus,  but  the  true  Sapphire  is  of  a  beau- 
tiful blue  color  and  remarkable  transparency.  The  yel- 
low variety  is  known  as  Oriental  Topaz ;  the  red  is  called 
Ruby,  and  nearly  rivals  the  diamond  in  value.  The 
more  common  kinds  of  sapphire  and  ruby  are  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  watches.  These  gems,  although 
beautiful,  are  less  valued  as  toilet  ornaments  than  dia- 


430  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

monds,  because  they  are  so  easily  counterfeited  by  the 
substitution  of  colored  glass. 

The  Emerald  is  green,  often  passing  into  blue ;  trans- 
parent ;  H.  =  7.5,  to  8.0  ;  G.  =  2.6,  to  2.8  ;  of 
shining  vitreous,  luster ;  found  in  Pinzgau  and  the  Tyrol, 
embedded  in  mica  slate.  The  finest  emeralds  come  from 
Grenada ;  others,  of  less  beauty  but  gigantic  size,  occur 
in  Siberia,  -and  Mount  Zalora,  in  Egypt,  affords  a  distinct 
variety.  The  Beryl,  which  Pliny  speaks  of  as  "green, 
like  the  sea,"  and  when  perfectly  transparent,  and  exhibit- 
ing clear  shades  of  sky  blue  or  mountain  green,  is  called 
Aqua-marine,  or  Noble  Beryl,  occurs  in  the  form  of  long 
hexagonal  prisms,  imbedded  in  granite.  The  finest  are 
brought  from  Peru. 

Topaz  is  a  perfectly  transparent  crystal  of  a  reddish- 
yellow  or  wine  color.  H.  =  8.0  ;  G.  =  3.6.  Found 
frequently  in  South  America.  The  finest  crystals  are 
brought  from  Minas  Novas,  in  Brazil.  Sometimes  they 
occur  in  the  form  of  pebbles,  and  are  found  in  the  rivers 
of  the  Southern  Continent.  This  variety  is  very  limpid, 
and  are  called  gouttes  <£eau  (drops  of  water).  Speci- 
mens of  quartz  crystal  from  Brazil,  penetrated  by  topaz, 
are  not  uncommon  ;  it  also  occurs  in  gneiss  and  granite. 
The  yellow  color  may  be  changed  to  red  by  heat,  but 
great  care  is  requisite  in  the  process,  as  the  crystal  is 
liable  to  be  broken.  Often  employed  in  jewelry,  or  for 
polishing  hard  substances. 

Garnet  is  deep  red,  verging  into  brown ;  pellucid, 
but  more  frequently  perfectly  translucent  or  opaque.  H. 
=  6.5  to  7.51 ;  G.  =  3.7  to  4.3.  Occurs  in  coarse 
grains  :  also  in  crystals  of  vitreous  luster,  when  not 
milky.  The  pellucid  or  precious  almandine  garnets, 
which  bring  a  high  price,  are  from  Ceylon  and  Greenland. 


MINERALOGY.  431 

Pyrope,  or  Bohemian  garnet,  is  the  most  abundant  vari- 
ety. Found  in  Bohemia,  embedded  in  trap  tufa,  gneiss, 
and  granite;  occurs  generally  in  rounded  or  angular 
grains ;  are  very  beautiful  and  bring  a  high  price. 

II. — Schorl  Tourmaline  is  of  vitreous  luster,  and 
occurs  as  compact,  massive,  and  coarse  columnar  crystals, 
transparent ;  usually  translucent  to  opaque ;  color  white, 
yellow,  brown,  red,  green,  or  black  ;  hues  not  brilliant, 
except  the  varieties  of  red  and  green.  The  electric  pol- 
arity of  the  fractured  crystals,  when  heated,  is  a  remark- 
able characteristic  of  this  mineral.  Fracture  conchoidal, 
passing  into  uneven ;  brittle.  H.  =  7.0,  to  7.5  ;  G.  = 
3,  0,  to  3,  3.  The  most  important  of  this  family  is 

The  Common  Tourmaline,  which  occurs  as  a  compact 
crystal-like  structure  ;  sometimes  columnar,  fine,  slender, 
a*hd  stem-like  ;  found  usually  in  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica 
slate,  in  various  localities ;  in  Europe  abundantly,  on  the 
St.  Gothard.  Color  mostly  the  same  with  that  of  the 
above  described,  except  that  it  is  never  red  ;  some  varie- 
ties are  black.  Tourmalines,  by  burning,  generally  in- 
tumesce  more  or  less ;  some,  those  containing  lime,  fusing 
readily ;  others  assuming  a  slaggy  appearance,  are  of 
very  difficult  fusibility.  A  relative  variety,  very  trans- 
parent, green  or  red,  which  never  melts,  but  successfully 
resists  the  action  of  fire,  is  called  Aphrite,  and  was 
most  probably  the  Hyacinth  of  ancient  times. 

III.— Zeolite.  H.  =  5.0,  to  5.5  ;  G.  =  2.1  to  2.25. 
Luster  vitreous  ;  color  yellow,  red,  or  yellowish  light 
gray.  The  best  representative  of  this  family  is 

Natrolite,  a  beautiful  stone  or  gem,  which  receives  its 
name  from  natron,  soda.  Found  in  basalt  and  volcanic 
rocks  ;  shape  prismatic,  usually  slender  ;  also  in  globular, 
stellated  groups,  on  a  white  or  green  ground.  Luster 


432  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

vitreous ;  transparent  to  translucent.  Occurs  in  Bohemia 
and  Nova  Scotia. 

IV. — Mica  Family.  Mica  is  distinguished  by  its 
peculiar  vitreous  structure,  and  luster  which  passes  from 
transparent  to  the  translucence  exhibited  by  mother-of- 
pearl.  Elastic  and  of  different  hues,  from  colorless  to 
red,  and  verging  from  yellow  to  bronze  and  black.  H. 
=  2  to  2.5 ;  G-.  =  2.86,  to  3.1.  Many  varieties. 

The  Common  Mica  is  sometimes  of  crystallized  struc- 
ture, but  mostly  occurs  in  laminate  crystal  plates  ;  com- 
mon everywhere,  and  is  the  principal  constituent  of 
granite,  gneiss,  and  mica  slate.  The  colorless  mica,  on 
account  of  the  toughness,  transparency,  and  the  thinness 
of  its  folia,  is  known  in  Siberia  as  Marienglass,  and 
divided  into  thin  plates,  like  panes,  is  used  in  place  of 
glass  in  windows.  The  laminae  of  the  Siberian  mica  often 
exceeds  a  yard  in  diameter.  The  fine  fragments  of  mica, 
mixed  with  sand,  used  in  Germany  for  numerous  pur- 
poses, such  as  giving  a  lustrous  sparkle  to  various  orna- 
mental works,  etc.,  and  according  to  color  is  known  as 
gold  or  silver  sand.  This  brilliant  metallic  sparkle  so 
well  resembles  that  of  gold  or  silver,  that  those  who  are 
not  acquainted  with  it  are  easily  deceived.  Hence  it  is 
called  cat-gold,  or  cat-silver. 

Talc  is  of  inferior  hardness.  =  2.6  to  2.8  ;  elastic ; 
formed  in  laminoe,  but  also  occurs  compact  or  tabular. 
Recognized  by  its  unctuous  feel,  and  mother-of-pearl-like 
structure.  Color  always  light  gray,  pale  yellow,  or 
greenish- white,  translucent.  Usually  found  in  compact, 
pearly,  foliated  masses,  forming  large  structures  of  rock. 
The  purest  and  handsomest  specimens  are  brought  from 
the  Alps  ;  those  of  Graubunden  are  most  esteemed.  The 
white  variety  of  talc  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 


MINERALOGY.  433 

rouge  and  colored  pastels ;  also  used  as  polishing  powder. 
The  Romans  called  it  Pumex  (which  has  been  corrupted 
into  pumice),  and  employed  it  for  various  toilet  purposes. 
In  the  present  time  it  serves  instead  of  oil  to  smooth  the 
wheels  of  machinery.  Potstone,  the  Lapis  ollaris  of  the  an- 
cients, found  on  the  mountains  of  St.  Bernard,  St.  Gothard? 
etc..  bears  much  likeness  to  the  foliated  talc  we  have 
just  been  describing.  Various  domestic  utensils,  stoves, 
etc.,  are  manufactured  of  potstone,  which,  being  very 
hard,  almost  equals  iron  in  resisting  igneous  action.  One 
stove  specimen,  found  in  Germany,  is  celebrated  as  hav- 
ing lasted  one  thousand  years. 

Lapis  Lazuli  (Ultramarine)  is  of  rich  color,  Berlin 
or  dark  azure  blue ;  luster  vitreous ;  translucent  on  the 
edges.  Occurs  in  compact  masses ;  seldom  as  crystals. 
When  powdered  it  constitutes  the  most  beautiful  and 
durable  of  blue  paints,  called  ultramarine,  and  has  been 
one  of  the  most  costly  colors.  H.  =  5  to  6 ;  G.  .•=  2.8 
to  2.4.  Found  in  Siberia,  Thibet,  and  China.  Lapis 
lazuli  is  rare ;  highly  esteemed  for  costly  vases,  and  inlaid 
work  for  ornamental  furniture,  it  is  also  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  mosaics,  boxes,  rings,  etc.  Magnificent 
slabs  of  great  value  are  contained  in  some  of  the  Italian 
cathedrals.  The  artificial  ultramarine,  being  much 
cheaper,  has  taken  the  place  in  the  arts,  entirely,  of  the 
native  lapis  lazuli. 

Turquoise. — Luster  waxy,  translucent  on  the  edges  ; 
color  blue,  verging  into  green ;  fracture  conchoidal ; 
shape,  reniform  or  globular  masses.  Turquoise  is 
brought  from  Persia,  and  so  highly  valued  as  a  gem  that 
small  specimens  of  the  pure  and  finely-tinted  stones, 
measuring  but  five  or  six  lines,  command  a  high  price, 
19 


434  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

varying  from  one  hundred  to   two  hundred  and  forty 
florins. 

V. —  Feldspath  or  Feldspar  forms  an  exclusive  fam- 
ily. Luster  vitreous,  passing  into  pearly;  translucent 
on  the  edges ;  sometimes  colorless,  at  others  white,  gray, 
flesh-colored;  seldom  yellow  or  greenish.  Brittle; 
fracture  uneven,  somewhat  conchoidal.  H.  =  6,  G.  = 
2.5  to  2.58.  Represented  first  by 

The  Common  Feldspar,  only  moderately  translu- 
cent, is  one  of  .the  constituents  of  the  granite,  gneiss, 
mica,  slate,  and,  associated  with  porphyry,  often  occurs 
in  crystalline  or  solid  masses  in  this  primary  rock  form- 
ation. Feldspar,  decomposed  and  called  Kaolin,  is 
an  important  adjunct  in  the  making  of  porcelain  or 
China  ware ;  deprived  of  alkali  and  potash  it  is  used  like 
gypsum  to  promote  the  fertility  of  fields.  Moonstone  is 
an  opalescent  variety  of  Adttlana,  is  very  hard,  and, 
when  polished,  presents  peculiar  pearly  reflections. 

Labradorite  —  Labrador  Feldspar. — Luster  vitre- 
ous, translucent,  pearly  on  the  edges.  This  stone,  espe- 
cially on  cleavage,  presents  the  most  beautiful  series  of 
colors  from  internal  reflections,  as  blue,  red,  yellow,  and 
green.  H.  =  6.0,  G.  =  2.68  to  2.72.  Occurs  in 
Finland  and  North  America.  Originally  from  Labra- 
dor, is  abundant  in  New  York.  Receives  a  fine  polish, 
and  is  used  for  making  jewelry,  boxes,  buttons,  va- 
ses, etc. 

VI.' — Pitch  Stone  Family,  to  which  belong,  first, 

Pitch  Stone,  which  has  the  luster  of  pitch  rather 
than  glass;  translucent  on  the  corners  or  edges.  Color 
green,  yellow,  red,  brown,  gray,  black :  often  waved  or 
clouded.  Fracture  flat,  conchoidal,  splintery.  Found 
in  large,  rock-like  masses ;  it  forms  whole  mountains  in 


MINERALOGY.  435 

Meissen,  Saxony,  and  Hungary,  etc.,  where  it  is  used 
for  making  stone  walls,  inclosing  fields.  Is  a  volcanic 
product,  like  lava.  H.  =  5.5  to  6.  G.  =  2.1  to  2.3. 

Obsidian  is  volcanic  glass.  Vitreous,  like  common 
glass,  compact,  often  in  globous  crystals,  translucent,  but 
smoky;  seldom  colorless;  mostly  black  and  gray;  some- 
times yellowish  red  or  brown.  Fracture  conchoidal ; 
very  brittle.  H.  =  6  to  7.0.  G.  =  2.2  to  2.4. 
Occurs  only  in  volcanic  regions,  Island  of  Teneriffe, 
Mexico,  Peru,  etc.  Employed  in  making  inferior  kinds 
of  jewelry ;  the  ancient  Mexicans  formerly  used  it  for 
mirrors,  knives,  razors,  and  daggers. 

Bimstein — Pumice  Stone,  is  feldspath  or  feldspar  in 
constitution.  Porous  and  sponge-like,  evidently,  like 
obsidian,  the  scoria  of  a  volcano.  Luster  vitreous  and 
silk-like ;  translucent  on  the  edges,  mostly  colorless, 
often  gray,  dull  yellow,  seldom  brown;  is  very  rough 
to  the  touch.  H.  =  6.0.  G.  (when  broken  or 
pounded  it  is  so  light  as  to  swim  on  water)  =  2.19  to 
2.20.  Found  everywhere  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
volcanoes  from  which  it  has  been  ejected.  It  is  used  for 
polishing  mahogany,  etc.  ;  powdered,  for  making  filters. 

VII. — Clay.  Clay  is  distinguished  not  only  by  its 
plastic  and  tenacious  qualities,  but  also  by  its  softness 
and  pliability.  In  a  pure  state  it  is  white,  nevertheless 
it  is  often  found  variously  colored,  and  forms  an  impor- 
tant element  in  all  the  stratified  deposits,  whether  of 
soils  or  the  primary  rock  formation.  G.  =  1.8  to  2.6. 
The  different  species  of  clay  rank  thus,  first, 

Pipe  Clay  is  a  pure,  plastic  clay,  and  if  occasionally 
found  colored — the  result  of  iron  ores  among  it — it  al- 
ways becomes  white  by  burning.  Found  in  the  United 


4db  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

States.  That  species  from  which  the  German  pipes  are 
made  occurs  in  Cologne,  Alsace,  and  Nassau. 

Limestone  Clay  is  ochreous-yellow  or  brown,  often 
containing  grains  of  quartz:  is  used  by  masons,  etc.,  for 
building  purposes. 

Potter's  Clay  is  gray  or  bluish-gray,  very  sectile. 

Lithomarge  is  a  compact  clay,  of  fine,  smooth  tex- 
ture, also  grayish-blue,  and  very  sectile.  Sometimes 
contains  mica,  and  absorbs  a  great  deal  of  water  ;  after 
drying,  contracts,  and  becomes  very  hard. 

Fuller's  Earth,  Soapstone,  etc.,  claim  a  place  here. 
All  clays  are  made  subservient  to  the  use  of  man  in 
making  Delft  ware  and  common  pottery ;  for  fulling  or 
washing  cloth,  making  tiles,  and  cement  or  plaster,  refin- 
ing sugar,  etc.  Lithomarge  and  Tuesite,  which  are  im- 
pervious to  water,  are  used  as  cement  to  line  the  inside 
of  cisterns.  Clay  soils  are  damp  and  cold,  consequently 
unfruitful;  burnt  clays  are  the  best  compost  for  such. 

Porcelain  Clay  or  Kaolin  is  derived  from  the  decom- 
position of  feldspar,  as  already  stated;  pale-colored, 
opaque :  placed  on  the  tongue,  adheres  to  it ;  feels  soft 
and  dry ;  structure  compact,  seldom  crystalline.  Color 
white,  verging  into  gray  or  red ;  occurs  in  nests  among 
gneiss,  granite,  and  mica-slate.  Found  in  the  United 
States  in  many  places ;  the  foreign  porcelain  clay  occurs 
in  Saxony,  France,  and  England,  but  that  of  China  and 
Japan  is  the  finest. 

Steinmark,  Myol'ui  or  White  Lithomarge  is  a  pale, 
opaque,  compact  clay,  of  fine,  smooth  texture ;  feels 
somewhat  greasy,  and,  placed  on  the  tongue,  adheres  to 
it.  Its  colors  are  white,  grayish,  bluish,  often  reddish, 
white  or  ochre  color,  with  a  shining  streak.  Found  in 
the  serpentine  and  topaz  rocks,  etc.,  of  the  German 


MINERALOGY.  437 

mountains ;  used  for  polishing  serpentine,  etc.  Surface 
of  fracture  fine  and  even.  H.  =  2.5.  G.  =  2.4. 
Soapstone  resembles  it,  but  is  softer. 

Fuller's  Earth  is  a  white,  gray,  green  or  red  earth, 
having  a  soapy  feeling ;  slightly  adhesive  on  the  tongue. 
Fracture  uneven ;  structure  sometimes  compact,  at  others 
laminate,  with  a  shining,  oily  streak.  It  falls  to  pieces 
in  water,  but  absorbs  oil  or  grease  of  any  kind.  Found 
in  Germany,  England,  and  elsewhere.  It  was  formerly 
used  by  the  fullers  for  removing  the  grease  from  woolen 
cloths,  for  which  office  its  faculty  of  absorbing  oils  and 
rejecting  water  peculiarly  fitted  it.  G.  =  2.19. 

Bole.  Luster  weak,  opaque,  translucent,  earthy. 
Color  white,  brown,  yellowish,  reddish.  Feels  greasy; 
fracture  conchoidal ;  streak  shining.  Adheres  to  the 
tongue ;  bursts  and  falls  to  pieces  in  water,  and  after- 
wards gradually  crumbles  into  fine  powder.  Found  in 
basaltic,  and  clefts  of  other  igneous  rocks  in  Silesia, 
Bohemia,  and  Upper  Italy.  Bole,  also  called  Terra 
Sigillata,  is  employed  for  various  purposes,  as  polishing 
material,  cement,  or  plaster,  bowls,  cups,  etc.,  and  Turk- 
ish pipes.  H.  =  2.0.  G.  =  1.9  to  2.0. 


THIRD    ORDER. 
MAGNESIA   COMBINED    WITH    ALUMINA. 

I. —  Talc  Family — Aluminates  of  Magnesia.  The 
most  conspicuous  of  this  family  is 

The  Spinel — Balas  Ruby.  Occurs  only  as  a  crystal, 
translucent,  often  transparent ;  luster  vitreous.  Color 
generally  red,  but  passing  into  blue,  green,  yellow,  or 
dark  brown.  H.  =  8.0,  G.  3.4  to  3.8.  The  red  spinel 


438  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

is  a  valuable  gem ;  the  scarlet  crystal  is  called  Spinel 
Ruby;  the  rose-red,  Balas  Ruby;  the  pale-colored  are 
less  esteemed  ;  the  dark-colored  crystals,  brown  or 
blackish,  are  known  as  Ceylonites.  Found  in  Ceylon 
and  Peru ;  occurs  in  dolomite,  limestone,  and  gneiss. 

Chrysolite — Olivine  is  what  is  called  Pistachio  or 
asparagus  green,  seldom  yellow  or  brown.  Luster  vit- 
reous, transparent,  often  only  translucent.  Occurs  in 
prismatic  crystals,  or  in  compact,  imbedded  grains. 
II.  =  6.5  to  7.0.  G.  =  3.3  to  3.5.  '  Found  in  Egypt, 
Brazil,  Bohemia,  and  Saxony;  occurs  discriminated  in 
basalt,  lavas,  and  meteoric  iron,  and  is  a  characteristic 
mineral  of  these  rocks.  The  brighter  colored  chrysolites 
are  sometimes  used  as  gems,  but  upon  the  whole,  are 
little  valued,  and  seldom  employed  for  any  purpose. 

II. — Speckstein — True  Talc  or  Spanish  Chalk  has 
an  unctuous  or  dry  soapy  feel  and  eminently  pearly  lus- 
ter, translucent  on  the  edges;  color  mostly  white,  also 
gray,  green,  or  reddish,  sometimes  arborescent  or  marked 
with  radiating  lines.  Shines  like  soap  on  being  rubbed ; 
does  not  adhere  to  the  tongue.  Fracture  uneven,  splin- 
tery, or  separating  into  thin  translucent  folia.  H.  =  1.0 
to  2.0.  G.  =  2.6  to  2.8.  Occurs  in  the  serpentine 
rocks  of  Sweden,  France,  Germany,  and  also  United 
States,  and  known  as  talcose  slate  or  steatite.  Impress- 
ible by  the  nail.  If  used  for  writing  on  glass,  the  im- 
pression is  so  permanent,  that  after  being  wiped  off  and 
the  spot  breathed  upon,  the  inscription  is  as  plain  as  at 
first. 

Serpentine  rarely  occurs  in  right  rectangular  prisms, 
but  is  usually  massive  and  compact  in  texture  ;  translu- 
cent on  the  edges,  nearly  opaque :  feels  slightly  oily  ; 
color  white,  yellow,  red,  but  mostly  green,  in  veins  or 


MINERALOGY.  439 

irregular,  changeable  shades.  Fracture  flat,  conchoidal, 
or  splintery  ;  shines  by  being  rubbed.  H.  =  3.0. 
G.  =  2.5  to  2.6.  Occurs  disseminated  throughout  ore- 
beds  and  in  granular  limestone,  and  giving  it  a  clouded 
green  color,  is  known  as  verd-antique  marble,  seldom, 
however,  as  a  gem  or  crystal.  The  common  serpentine 
is  found  in  Saxony,  the  Erzgebirge,  etc.,  also  in  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  United  States,  and  is  employed  as 
a  material  for  tables  and  other  ornamental  in-door  work. 
Meerschaum — Sea  Froth.  Compact,  with  a  smooth 
feel,  somewhat  greasy  opaque ;  color  grayish-white,  with 
a  faint  yellowish  tinge.  Fracture  fine,  earthy ;  ad- 
heres firmly  to  the  tongue.  II.  =  2.5  to  3.0.  G.  =  1.2 
to  1.6.  Found  in  Anatolia,  Crimea,  Spain,  and  Mor- 
occo. Occurs  principally  in  Asia  Minor  at  the  plains  of 
Eskihi-sher  in  stratified,  earthy,  or  alluvial  deposits.* 
When  first  dug  up,  it  is  soft,  has  a  greasy  feel,  and 
lathers  like  soap,  and  on  this  account  is  used  by  the 
Tartars  for  washing  their  linen ;  also  employed  for  mak- 
ing the  bowls  of  Turkish  pipes,  by  a  process  like  that 
for  pottery  ware.  These  bowls  are  imported  into  Ger- 
many in  their  rude  state,  and  are  there  prepared  for 
sale  by  softening  them  first  in  tallow,  then  in  wax,  and, 
finally,  polishing  them. 


FOURTH     ORDER. 
LIME.— MAGNESIA. 

I. — Cole  Family.     Lime  or  Limestone  occurs  either 
in  crystals  as  calcareous  or  calc  spar  or  else  in  compact 

*  Aphrodite  and  Qtdncite  are  varieties  found  in  France. 


440  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

structures  like  marble,  in  which  case  it  forms  large  beds 
of  rock  and  even  mountains.  When  met  with  as  a  crys- 
tal, it  is  mostly  colorless ;  luster  vitreous ;  sometimes, 
however,  found  gray,  green,  yellowish,  very  rarely  red 
or  blue,  but  in  every  case  translucent.  As  a  compact 
stone  its  hue  is  light  groy  or  grayish-blue,  and.  with  the 
exception  of  white  marble,  always  impure.  Fracture 
conchoidul ;  effervesces  with  acids.  II.  =  3.0.  G.  =  2.5 
to  2.73.  Lime  is  among  the  most  useful  of  the  miner- 
als ;  calcareous  spar  is  employed  as  a  solvent  in  Metal- 
lurgy. Marble  is  of  infinite  importance  in  sculpture, 
for  which  purpose  that  brought  from  the  quarries  of  Car- 
rara and  the  island  of  Paros  is  best ;  that  used  for 
building  material  is  called  granular  limestone.  The 
more  compact  limestone,  of  variegated  veins  and  shadings 
and  on  account  of  its  receiving  a  beautiful  polish,  is  also 
called  marble,  and  applied  to  all  purposes  and  varieties 
of  stone  manufactures,  as  slabs  for  tables,  pedestals,  cor- 
nices, etc.  This  species  Avhich  often  exhibits  variegated 
shadings  of  color,  and  breaks  out  into  thick  slabs,  is  of 
varied  structures  and  markings.  Sienna  Marble  is  yel- 
low with  cloudings ;  Bird's  Eye  is  compact  limestone, 
with  crystal  points  disseminated  through  it  ;*  Ruin  Marble 
is  yellowish,  with  brownish  shadings  or  lines,  represent- 
ing castles,  towers,  and  cities  in  ruins ;  other  marbles 
are  also  named  after  the  fanciful  figures  they  represent ; 
the  markings  are  due  to  infiltrated  oxyd  of  iron  or  man- 
ganese. Ruin  Marble  is  among  the  Florentine  varieties 
of  Calc.  Lithographic  stone  is  a  compact  grayish  or 
yellowish-gray  limestone  of  very  even  texture  and  cou- 
choidal  fracture ;  used  in  lithography.  That  of  Solen- 
hofen  near  Munich  is  most  noted.  The  use  of  Chalk,  a 
member  also  of  this  family  is  well  known.  Calcareous 


MINERALOGY.  441 

Tufa,  formed  by  deposition  from  waters  resembles  Rock- 
milk,  but  is  more  cellular  or  porous  and  not  so  soft ; 
occasionally  used  for  light  walls,  making  mortars  for 
druggists,  and,  lastly,  as  medicine.  Dolomite,  the  white 
variety,  used  as  marble,  is  the  Magnesian  Carbonate  of 
Lime. 

Gypsum — Plaster  of  Paris — Sulphate  of  Lime; 
mostly  of  compact  texture,  seldom  crystallized,  but  when 
it  is,  and  pure,  it  is  as  pellucid  as  glass,  and  has  a  pearly 
luster.  Occurs  likewise  in  laminated  masses  of  large  size, 
with  a  satin  luster ;  in  radiating  or  stellated  forms ;  also 
affording  foliated,  flexible  laminse  ;  color  gray,  reddish, 
brownish,  and  the  compact  variety  opaque.  Found  in 
great  beds  among  the  limestone,  marl,  clay,  and  sand- 
stone formations  ;  very  often  associated  with  rock-salt. 
The  pure  and  fine-grained  snowy  gypsum,  also  called 
Alabaster,  and  used  for  statuettes  and  small  sculpture, 
comes  from  Florence.  Gypsum  when  burnt  and  ground 
forms  a  white  powder,  which,  being  mixed  with  water, 
on  drying  becomes  hard  and  compact.  Known  as  Plas- 
ter of  Paris,  and  is  used  for  making  models  and  stucco 
ornaments,  taking  casts,  and  giving  a  finish  to  walls. 
Gypsum  is  also  ground  and,  employed  as  compost,  is 
considered  an  important  agent  in  improving  clover  fields. 
Anhydrite  is  a  relative  species,  compact,  hard,  and  also 
a  sulphate  of  lime,  like  gypsum,  but  differs  in  contain- 
ing no  water. 

II. — Fluor  spar  —  Flusspath — Fluoride  of  Cal- 
cium. 

Fluor  spar  or  Fluate  of  Lime.  Structure  some- 
times, although  rarely,  in  crystal  form  or  columnar ; 
mostly  massive,  granular,  coarse  or  fine.  Luster  vitre- 
ous, transparent  or  translucent  ;  colorless,  but  also  fre- 
19* 


442  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

quently  colored  brilliantly  green,  blue,  red.  When 
heated,  exhibits  a  greenish,  but  vivid,  phosphorescence. 
H.  =  4.0.  G.  =  3.1  to  3.2.  Ranks  on  account  of  its 
clearness  and  bright  colors  among  the  handsomest  of  the 
minerals,  and  is  very  common  in  all  the  mining  districts 
of  Germany,  particularly  in  those  of  the  Hartz  and 
Black  Forest.  It  has  the  peculiarity  of  mixing  readily 
•with  other  metallic  substances ;  as  it  fuses  easily,  is  used 
as  a  flux  to  aid  in  reducing  copper  and  other  oi'es,  whence 
its  name  Fluor.  Fluor  spar,  in  combination  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  developes  fluoric  acid,  which  is  employed  in 
etching  on  glass.  The  more  beautiful  crystal  specimens 
are  occasionally  employed  by  the  lapidary  in  making 
ornaments  for  inlaying  cabinets,  etc. ' 

III. — Hornblende —  Tabular  Spar — seldom  occurs 
crystallized,  mostly  firm  or  compact ;  luster  vitreous,  - 
inclining  to  pearly.  Slightly  translucent  on  the  edges ; 
colorless  or  colored,  yellow,  gray,  red,  or  brownish-Avhite; 
fracture  uneven  ;  brittle :  when  fiibbed  or  heated,  phos- 
phorescent. Occurs  in  granular  limestone ;  abounds  in 
Hungary,  also  in  the  United  States,  and  is  an  essen- 
tial constituent  of  certain  rocks,  as  syenite,  trap  rock, 
and  hornblende  slate.  H.  =  4.5  to  5.0.  G.  =  2.8 
to  2.9. 

Common  Hornblende.  Mostly  in  the  form  of  crystals, 
but  also  massive  and  slaty  cleavage ;  face  granulate  or 
disseminate  and  radiate  ;  translucent  on  the  edges :  crow- 
black,  dark,  or  blue-black  green ;  is  the  principal  consti- 
tuent of  greenstone.  Found  extensively  in  the  primary 
and  sedimentary  rock  formations,  associated  with  the 
metallic  ores.  Abounds  in  the  BLick  Forest  and  Tyrol ; 
equally  so  in  the  mining  districts  of  the  United  States. 
H.  =  5.0  to  6.0.  G.  =  2.9  to  3.4. 


MINERALOGY.  443 

Asbestus  is  only  a  fine  crystal  variety  of  •  hornblende 
(  Tremolite)  ;  made  up  of  delicate,  hair-like  fibers,  but 
so  interlaced  lengthwise  that  their  structure  is  scarcely 
apparent ;  blades,  are  flexible,  elastic,  silky,  soft ;  trans- 
lucent, occasionally  opaque  ;  smooth  to  the  touch.  Color 
mostly  whitish,  but  often  of  various  shades  of  green, 
verging  into  brownish-yellow ;  occurs  in  narrow  seams  or 
blades  in  gneiss,  mica  slate,  etc.,  in  the  mountains  of 
Savoy ;  also  in  hilly  regions  of  the  eastern  and  middle 
parts  of  the  United  States.  There  is  a  coarser  variety, 
less  silky,  fine,  and  elastic,  which  is  called  common  asbes- 
tus,  mountain  leather,  and  mountain  cork. 

Amianthus  which  includes  Ligniform  asbestus,  is  com- 
posed of  slender  fibers,  with  a  rich  satin  luster.  These 
filamentous  fibers,  easily  separated,  can  be  spun  and 
woven  into  incombustible  cloth  ;  the  ancients  used  it  for 
the  wicks  of  lamps  in  their  temples ;  also  for  enveloping 
the  corpses  of  the  dead  which  were  to  be  burned,  as, 
proof  against  all  igneous  action,  the  ashes  remained  un- 
changed and  unscattered. 

IY. — Baryta — Strontla — Sulphate  of  Barytes,  or 
Heavy  Spar — occurs  either  in  the  form  of  crystals  or  is 
of  massive,  compact,  granular,  fibrous,  or  coarse  lamel- 
lar structure  and  is  distinguished  from  Celestine  and 
Arragonite  by  its  uncommonly  high  specific  gravity. 
Luster  vitreous ;  feels  somewhat  oily ;  translucent,  passing 
into  pearly.  Colorless  mostly,  although  often  found  of 
various  shades  of  gray,  yellow,  and  brown.  II.  =  3  to 
3.5.  G.  =  4.1  to  4.7.  Found  in  Germany,  in  the 
primary  and  sedimentary  rock  formations  in  the  Hartz 
mountains,  and  mining  region  of  the  Black  Forest ;  also 
in  Connecticut,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania,  associated 
with  the  metallic  ores.  Heavy  spar  is  used  in  many 


444  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

chemical  purposes  and  preparations ;  ground  up  it  is  em- 
ployed as  white  paint ;  white  lead  and  arsenic  are  fre- 
quently adulterated  with  it,  an  imposition  not  easily 
detected  on  account  of  its  high  specific  gravity. 


SECOND    CLASS. 
SALTS. 

Mineral  salts  are  distinguished  by  their  solubility  in 
water,  and  peculiar  taste. 

FIRST  ORDER. 
SALTS    OF     A L  U  M I  X  A . 

Native  Alum  occurs  in  regularly  formed  crystals. 
Colorless — very  seldom  colored ;  luster  vitreous  ;  fracture 
conchoidal ;  taste  sweetish  astringent ;  soluble  in  water. 
Sometimes  it  is  found  in  compact  masses,  but  of  silky, 
fibrous  structure ;  at  others  in  efflorescent  crusts,  as  if 
composed  of  flour ;  but  mostly  on  the  surfaces  of  rocks 
containing  sulphur ;  in  clay-slate,  also  called  alum-slate, 
gneiss,  and  in  most  of  the  other  formations.  Met  with  in 
all  volcanic  regions — Silesia  and  Norway;  also  at  the 
Solfataras,  in  South  America.  Alum  is  an  important 
material  in  the  arts,  on  account  of  its  caustic  nature ; 
used  in  dyeing,  paper-making,  tanning,  and  also  in  the 
preparation  of  medicine.  H.  =  2.0  to  2.5;  G.  =1.7 
to  1.8. 


MINERALOGY.  445 

SECOND    ORDER. 
ALKALINE   SALTS— ALKALIES. 

Mineral  Salt  is  found  both  in  the  crystal  form  or  in 
compact  masses.  Luster  vitreous  ;  slightly  greasy ; 
rather  transparent  ;  mostly  colorless,  but  sometimes 
gray,  yellow,  or  red ;  rarely  blue  ;  fracture  conchoidal ; 
taste  purely  salt ;  crackles  when  put  into  the  fire ;  dis- 
solves readily  in  water.  H.  =  2.5.  G.  =  2.2  to  2.3. 

Rock  Salt  occurs  in  large  masses,  forming  remarkable 
deposits,  or  hanging  from  the  roofs  of  caves  in  the  form  of 
stalactites.  Salt  beds  are  found  in  rocks  of  various  ages^ 
from  the  Red  Sandstone — primary,  secondary— in  short, 
in  all  the  formations,  mixed  with  clay,  gypsum,  and 
lime ;  in  Europe  the  principal  locations  are  Gallicia. 
Spain,  Saltzburg,  and  Poland.  Those  of  Poland  and 
Hungary  are  the  most  remarkable.  In  the  great  salt 
mine  of  the  former,  near  Cracow,  which  has  been  worked 
since  1251,  its  deep  subterranean  regions  are  excavated 
into  houses,  chapels,  and  other  ornamental  forms.  Illum- 
ined by  lamps,  it  presents  a  most  imposing  sight,  the  roof 
being  supported  by  pillars  of  salt,  which,  sparkling  like 
gems,  fills  the  beholder  not  only  with  admiration  but  awe, 
as  serving  to  call  up  the  wonders  of  creation.  The  salt 
rocks  of  the  Pyrenees  rise  up  in  lofty  crags  more  than 
one  hundred  feet  high.  Vast  lakes  of  salt  water  exist  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  Lake  Timpanoga,  the  Great 
Salt  Lake  of  North  America,  has  an  area  of  two  thousand 
square  miles.  The  greater  portion  of  common  salt  is 
made  from  the  water  of  salt  springs  which  issue  from 
these  saline  rocks  or  deposits,  or  from  wells  made  by 


446  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

boring  into  them  often  to  a  depth  of  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  having  the  brine  raised  by 
machinery.  It  is  then  conducted  by  troughs  into  boilers, 
and  there  evaporated  by  heat.  The  water  thus  impreg- 
nated by  salt,  is  in  Germany  called  Salsola ;  is  made 
into  salt  by  condensation.  Salt  is  every  where  consid- 
ered indispensable  in  the  wants  of  man ;  not  only  is  it 
valuable  as  a  seasoning  and  preservative  for  his  food,  but 
is  of  infinite  use  in  the  arts,  manufacture  of  glass,  soda, 
etc.,  and  in  the  forms  of  Epsom  and  Glauber  salts  well- 
known  in  medicine. 

Soda.  Nit  rum  of  the  ancients — Saltpetre,  or  Nitrate 
of  Potash,  of  the  present  day — occurs  in  minute,  needle- 
formed  crystals,  or  is  obtained  from  compact  masses  of 
earth  containing  it  lixiviated.  It  is  also  often  found  in  a 
state  of  efflorescence  on  stones,  walls,  etc.  Luster  vit- 
reous ;  colorless,  else  green  or  yellow  ;  deliquesces 
slightly ;  taste  sharp  and  cooling.  Fracture  conchoidal ; 
effloresces  on  exposure  to  the  air.  H.  =  1.0  to  1.5. 
G.  =  1.4  to  1.5. 

Natron,  a  native  carbonate  of  Soda,  is  formed  from 
the  condensation  of  the  waters  of  a  small  lake  (Natron 
Sea")  in  Egypt.  Occurs  also  in  other  soda  lakes,  in 
Hungary,  Persia,  Italy,  Mexico,  and  is  particularly 
abundant  in  Chili.  Natron  accidentally  led  to  the  in- 
vention of  glass  making ;  the  Phoenicians,  having  landed 
in  Egypt,  and  obtained  a  quantity  of  soda,  placed  their 
kettle  on  some  soda  blocks  which  they  fixed  in  a  little 
hollow  they  scooped  out  of  the  sand.  When  the  water 
in  the  kettle  boiled,  it  ran  over  the  top  among  the  sand, 
and  the  soda  melting  with  it,  the  two  combined  formed 
glass.  Soda  is  of  infinite  importance,  and  is  much  used 
in  soap  making,  by  glass  manufacturers,  and  also  as 


MINERALOGY.  447 

medicine  is  well  known  as  soda  powders.  According  to 
Herodotus  soda  was  employed  by  the  Egyptians  in  em- 
balming. 

THIRD     ORDER. 
MELLITE   OF   ALUMINA.— OXALATE   OF    LIME. 

Honey  Stone — Mellite — is  a  crystal ;  luster  resinous, 
inclining  to  vitreous.  Streak  white  ;  color,  honey-yel- 
low ;  often  reddish  or  brownish,  semi-transparent.  Frac- 
ture conchoidal.  Burns  readily  in  heated  air,  leaving 
an  earthy  deposit.  When  burnt  in  the  open  air,  neither 
smoke  nor  flame  is  observable,  and  it  eventually  acquires 
the  color  and  consistence  of  chalk.  Was  formerly  classed 
among  the  mineral  resins  as  a  kind  of  amber,  which,  nev- 
ertheless belongs  to  an  entirely  different  family.  H.  — 
2.0  to  2.5.  G.  =  1.5  to  1.6. 


FOURTH    ORDER. 

METALLIC   SALTS. 

Green  Vitriol — Copperas— Sulphate  of  Iron.  Found 
in  crystals,  generally  in  clusters  pulverulent  or  massive. 
Glassy ;  color  greenish,  passing  into  various  shades  of 
white;  subtransparent  to  translucent.  Taste  astrin- 
gent, sweetish,  and  metallic.  Decomposes  slightly  in 
water ;  effloresces  if  exposed  to  the  air.  and  turns  yel- 
low. H.  =  2.0.  G.  =  1.8  to  1.9.  As  green  vitriol, 
or  sulphate  of  iron  is  the  result  of  the  decomposition  of 
pyrites,  it  occurs  wherever  they  are  met  with,  and  the 
most  noted  localities  are  found  in  old  iron  mines,  where 


448  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

air  and  water  find  admittance.  The  old  mines  of  Hartz, 
Tyrol,  and  Black  Forest,  is  its  most  noted  locality,  but 
always  found  near  pyrites.  Copperas  is  used  for  making 
ink,  and  in  dyeing  and  tanning.  Employed  also  in  the 
manufacture  of  Prussian  Blue,  Oil  of  Vitriol,  and  med- 
icinally. 

Blue  Vitriol — Sulphate  of  Copper.  Found  usually 
in  incrustations  or  in  the  stalactitic  overflowing  of  waters 
passing  through  copper  mines ;  also  exhibited  on  rocks. 
Structure  crystal-like,  luster  vitreous ;  color  deep  sky- 
blue,  verging  into  greenish ;  taste,  astringent,  nauseous, 
and  metallic.  Dissolves  readily  in  water ;  if  iron  is  put 
into  the  water,  the  metallic  portion  of  the  copper  falls  to 
the  bottom.  Found  sometimes  in  old  copper  mines,  at 
others  it  is  obtained  from  copper  springs,  in  the  waters 
of  which  iron  bars  were  deposited  ;  the  copper  springs 
of  Wicklow,  Ireland,  and  the  Rio  Tinto  mine  in  Spain, 
are  the  principal  localities  where  copper  is  worked  in  so- 
lution. H.  =  2.5.  G.  =  2.2  to  2.3.  Used  in  color- 
ing, in  preparing  paints,  and  also  in  medicine. 


THIRD     CLASS. 
COMBUSTIBLE    MINERALS. 

This  family  of  minerals  is  distinguished  by  a  combus- 
tible nature,  and  consists  of  substances  that  burn  read- 
ily, sometimes  with  a  resinous  flame,  at  others  rather 
pale  blue  sulphurous  light,  which  arises  from  the  decom- 
position of  the  water  present,  and  the  formation  of  the 
gas  called  carbonic  oxyd. 


MINERALOGY.  44' 


FIRST    ORDER. 
CARBON. 

The  first  of  this  race  of  minerals  is 

Stone  Coal.  Mineral  coal  occurs  either  in  compact 
masses,  or  detached  portions,  in  beds  or  layers  of  differ- 
ent sizes,  interstratified  with  other  rock  strata,  as  clay 
shales  and  coarse  grit  sandstones.  Mostly  sectile, 
sometimes  brittle;  color  grayish-black,  of  shades  more 
or  less  intense.  Luster  vitreous,  resinous,  sometimes 
sub-metallic,  opaque ;  often  rendered  impure  by  admix- 
ture with  clays,  and  always  associated  with  sulphur 
(pyrites).  H.  =  2  to  2.5.  G.  =  1.1  to  1.5.  Bitu- 
minous coal  ignites  easily,  and  burns  with  a  bright  lively 
flame ;  anthracite,  called  stone-coal,  affords  only  a  pale 
blue,  sulphurous  light.  If  coal  is  burned  in  a  close 
receptacle,  and  the  atmospheric  air  is  wholly  shut  off, 
gas  is  evolved,  and  the  residue,  rough,  ponderous,  ex- 
tremely hard,  and  highly  combustible,  forms  coke, 
which  is  of  infinite  use  in  the  smelting  of  metals. 

Mineral  coal  occurs  in  extensive  beds  or  layers  be- 
tween the  clay  shales  and  sandstones,  principally  those 
of  the  sedimentary  and  old  red  sandstone  formations. 
The  strata  vary  in  thickness  from  a  few  lines  to  forty 
feet.  This  useful  mineral  is  very  widely  distributed 
over  the  world.  England,  France,  Spain,  Belgium, 
Germany,  especially  in  the  region  of  the  Rhine,  the 
Saale,  the  Elbe,  and  the  Oder.  But  nowhere  is  the 
coal  formation  more  extensively  displayed  than  in  the 
United  States,  nowhere  are  its  beds  of  greater  thickness 
or  its  qualities  more  valuable.  East  of  the  Alleghanies 
the  coal  is  of  the  hard,  compact  species  known  as  anthra- 


450  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

cite;  going  west  it  grows  more  and  more  bituminous, 
until  at  the  western  extremity  of  Pennsylvania  (Pitts- 
burg),  as  also  throughout  the  Western  States,  it  is  alto- 
gether bituminous.  Both  varieties  are  equally  excellent 
in  furnishing  fuel  for  fires,  and  gas  for  lighting  our 
streets  and  houses. 

Broiun  Coal — Wood  Coal — Lignite — is  solid,  with 
more  or  less  distinct  traces  of  remains  of  the  wood  which 
formed  its  origin.  Burns  with  clear  flame  and  an  empy- 
reurnatic  odor.  It  occurs  massive,  sometimes  of  fibrous 
structure ;  color  varying  from  brown  to  pitch  black ; 
ofttimes  friable ;  opaque.  Fracture  earthy  or  conchoidal, 
luster  resinous.  H.  =  1  to  2.5.  G.  =  1  to  1.4.  Found 
in  the  stratified  or  primitive  mountains  of  the  tertiary 
period,  below  sandstone  and  clay,  mostly  in  association 
with  pyrites.  Occurs  very  extensively  in  Germany,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Cologne,  Bonn,  Eisleben,  the  me- 
tallic and  other  mountains  of  Thuringia,  etc.  The 
handsomest  variety  of  lignite  is  Jet,  which,  of  higher 
luster  and  deeper  color  than  the  first-named,  receives  a 
brilliant  polish,  and  is  set  and  used  as  jewelry.  Also 
called  Gagat ;  mentioned  by  Pliny  and  Dioscorides.  The 
name  was  derived  from  the  river  Gagas,  in  Syria,  near 
the  mouth  of  which  it  was  found  ;  corrupted  into  the 
term  jet.  Found  also  in  England. 

Turf  is  a  mixture  of  plants,  roots,  and  earths,  which, 
exposed  to  severe  igneous  action,  have  become  combined 
in  one  common  structure.  Color  dark  brown,  nearly 
black,  fracture  earthy;  is  used  for  fuel,  but,  previous  to 
burning,  must  be  dried.  A  kind  of  coal  or  coke,  which 
is  a  better  combustible  than  the  turf  itself,  and  burns 
without  giving  forth  the  usual  unpleasant  odor,  is  pre- 
pared from  it. 


MINERALOGY.  451 

SECOND     ORDER. 
MINERAL   RESINS. 

Sulphur.  Native  sulphur  occurs  in  various  shapes,- 
as  crystals,  trimetric,  compound,  imperfect,  or  micro- 
scopic, the  last  exhibited  in  iron  ores.  Color  yellow, 
shading  into  orange-yellow ;  sometimes  contains  bitumen 
and  carbon ;  in  such  cases  it  is  grayish.  Luster  resin- 
ous ;  transparent  to  translucent.  H.  =  1.5  to  2.5.  G. 
=  1.9  to  2.1.  Sulphur  is  usually  met  with  in  the 
neighborhood  of  volcanoes,  also  in  metal  deposits  and 
strata  or  beds  of  gypsum.  Burns  with  a  blue  flame  at  a 
low  temperature,  with  a  strong,  unpleasant,  almost  suf- 
focating odor ;  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  melts  easily  by 
heat,  and,  on  being  fused,  sublimates  readily.  Is  used 
for  various  purposes,  and  in  various  forms,  as  material 
for  igniting  other  bodies,  sulphuric  acid,  bleaching,  in 
the  manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and  as  medicine. 

Amber — Yellow  Mineral  Resin — is  found  in  large, 
irregular  masses,  mostly  in  alluvium ;  seldom  in  lignite 
or  with  sandstone  ;  lattei-ly  supposed  to  be  of  vegetable 
origin,  from  the  occurrence  of  insects  or  plants  being  en- 
cased within  it.  Color  yellow,  verging  into  brown,  red, 
or  white ;  transparent  to  translucent ;  fracture  brittle ; 
luster  resinous.  H.  =  2  to  2.5.  G.  =  1  to  1.3. 

The  Bernstein  of  the  Germans — amber — has  been  con- 
sidered as  the  fossil  resins  of  trees  existing  in  the  ante- 
diluvian world,  which  were  swept  from  their  places  by 
the  deluge,  and  aided  largely  in  forming  the  vegetable 
deposits.  Found  on  the  sea  coasts  of  East  Prussia,  at 
Dantzic.  Denmark,  Sicily,  and  at  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  in 


452  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

England :  is  the  elektron  of  the  Greeks.  From  its  be- 
coming electric  by  friction,  it  gave  the  name  electricity 
to  science.  Amber  is  used  for  many  purposes :  in  the 
form  of  beads  for  ornament ;  for  making  varnishes ;  in 
Turkey  is  valued  as  mouth-pieces  for  their  pipes,  and  is 
burnt  as  incense  in  Romish  churches.  Copal  is  often 
substituted  in  the  place  of  amber  in  the  making  of  var- 
nish. Succmic  acid,  also  called  oil  of  amber,  is  also 
made  from  it,  and  as  heat  is  indispensable  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  amber  varnish,  in  order  to  fuse  the  amber,  both 
of  these  products  are  obtained  at  one  time. 

Asphaltum — Mineral  Pitch — is  found  either  solid  or 
fluid ;  in  the  latter  form  it  is  naptha.  Asphaltum  proper 
occurs  in  solid,  resinous  masses,  globular  or  reniform  :  color 
pitch-black  and  brownish  black ;  opaque ;  fracture  bril- 
liant, conchoidal;  luster  resinous.  H.  =  2.0.  G.  •— 
1.1  to  1.2.  Dissolves  at  heat  corresponding  with  that 
of  water  at  boiling  point,  and  burns  with  strong,  bright 
flame.  Asphaltum  is  met  with  abundantly  on  the  shores  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  in  the  Island  of  Trinidad,  where  it 
occurs  in  huge  solidified  masses  of  black  pitch,  which  look 
like  black  rocks  among  the  trees.  Sometimes,  but  rarely, 
asphaltum  is  found  among  marl  and  limestone,  in  Swit- 
zerland, Hanover,  and  the  Black  Forest.  Used  in  mak- 
ing sealing-wax,  varnishes,  and  for  paving  streets. 


THIRD    ORDER. 
BITUMINOUS     R  E  S I  X  S . 

Rock-oil — Naptha  or  Petrolium — is  a  thin  fluid,  col- 
orless or  slightly  yellow ;  has  a  pitch-like  odor,  not  at  all 
unpleasant;  is  very  volatile  and  burns  with  a  bright, 


MINERALOGY.  453 

clear  flame ;  does  not  change  or  become  solid  by  being 
exposed  to  the  air.  G.  =  0.75.  Contains,  occasionally, 
a  portion  of  asphaltum,  which  renders  it  of  a  darker 
color.  If  the  mixture  of  asphaltum  is  sufficient  to  render 
it  more  viscid,  it  is  called  Mineral  Pitch  or  Mountain 
Tar.  Occurs  in  clay,  sand  limestone,  and  marl ;  abounds 
on  the  northwestern  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  Batku, 
and  Modena,  near  which  places  it  issues  from  the  earth 
in  large  quantities,  mostly  by  springs.  Petrolium  is 
is  used  in  Birmah  as  lamp  oil.  Naptha  affords  both  light 
and  fuel  to  the  inhabitants  of  Batku,  and  that  obtained 
from  the  spring  near  Amiano  is  also  used  for  illuminating 
the  city  of  Genoa.  There  are  also  other  springs  of  naptha 
in  Italy,  Alsatia,  etc.  Employed  in  various  ways,  it  is 
very  useful,  first,  as  affording  fuel  and  light ;  secondly, 
forming  a  substitute  instead  of  oil  for  paint,  or  making 
varnish,  and,  in  France,  in  forming  cement  for  covering 
roofs  and  lining  water  cisterns,  or  making  pavements. 

FOURTH    ORDER. 

METALLIC     EARTHS. 

Graphite — Black  Lead — Plumbago  or  Carburet  of 
Iron — is  mostly  found  either  in  solid  masses,  nests,  or 
scate-like  laminse ;  also  granular,  and  occasionally  in 
prismatic  form.  Color,  iron-gray  or  black,  opaque ;  lus- 
ter metallic  ;  feels  greasy,  and  does  not  fuse  readily. 
II.  =  1.2.  G.  =  1.8  to  2.4.  Occurs  in  nests,  at  Bor- 
rowdale,  England,  Chamouny,  France,  Griesbach,  in 
Passau,  and  is  widely  disseminated  throughout  the  East- 
ern States  of  North  America.  The  finest  sort  is  used 
for  making  pencils.  Receives  its  name,  graphite,  from 


454  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

the  Greek  wor&ffrapho,  I  write,  in  allusion  to  its  extensive 
use  in  writing.  The  more  impure  variety  is  good  mate- 
rial (being  fire-proof)  for  manufacturing  fire  crucibles — 
for  diminishing  the  friction  in  heavy  machinery,  and  is 
also  used  for  giving  a  gloss  or  polish  to  stoves  and 
grates. 


FOURTH     CLASS. 
ORES. 

Minerals  which  contain  the  heavy  metals,  either  in  a 
pure  state  or  mixed  with  other  substances. 

FIRST   ORDER. 

EARTHS  CONTAINING  METALS. 

Magnetic  Iron  Ore — Magnetite — occurs  in  six-sided 
or  tabular  crystals  or  prisms ;  generally  massive,  but 
sometimes  detached  and  disseminate ;  color  iron  or  grayish 
black ;  lustre  metallic  ;  opaque ;  streak  black,  rough  ; 
strongly  magnetic,  and  contains  a  great  deal  of  iron. 
H.  =  5.5  to  6.5.  G.  =  4.5  to  5.2.  Occurs  in  green- 
stone and  serpentine,  and  is  a  valuable  iron  ore,  from 
which  the  celebrated  Swedish  iron  is  made.  Found  in 
Tyrol,  Styria,  etc.,  in  Europe,  and  in  most  of  the  Eastern 
States,  in  North  America. 

Chrome  Iron  Stone — Chromium — seldom  occurs  in 
crystals ;  mostly  solid,  granulate,  or  foliate ;  color  iron- 
gray,  shading  into  pitch-black  ;  luster  metallic,  opaque, 


MINERALOGY.  455 

resinous;  streak  brown.  H.  =  5.5.  G.  =  4.3  to  4.5. 
Found  in  serpentine  rocks  of  Silesia,  Styria;  in  the 
United  States,  Maryland.  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Connecticut.  The  compounds  of  chrome  are  extensively 
used  as  pigments.  Chromate  of  lead  is  the  chrome  yellow 
of  the  painter ;  used  also  in  calico  printing,  dyeing,  and 
painting  of  porcelain.  The  green  oxyd  of  chromium 
gives  its  own  color  to  glass,  enamel,  and  is  also  employed 
in  coloring  porcelain,  and  chromic  acid  is  said  to  be  the 
red  coloring  matter  of  the  red  sapphire  or  ruby. 

Red  Iron  Ore—Peroxyd  of  Iron.  Partly  crystal- 
like  ;  often  massive,  granular ;  color  dark,  steel-gray,  or 
iron-black,  sometimes  of  variegated  shades ;  streak  pow- 
der, cherry-red  or  reddish-brown.  But  slightly  attracted 
by  the  magnet.  H.  =  5.5.  G.  =  5.0  to  5.3.  Occurs 
in  the  primitive  and  sedimentary  rock  formations,  in 
Switzerland,  region  of  the  Rhine,  mountains  of  Black 
Forest.  Very  abundant  in  the  United  States.  Pilot 
Knob,  in  Missouri,  is  seven  hundred  feet  high ;  another 
mountain,  in  the  same  region,  is  one  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  high ;  both  consist  mainly  of  this  ore,  piled,  as  it  is 
stated,  in  masses  of  all  sizes,  from  a  pigeon's  egg  to  a 
middle-sized  church.  Red  Clay  Ironstone,  or  Bloodstone, 
is  of  a  variety  of  more  solid  structure;  earthy;  conspic- 
uous from  its  blood-red  hue,  passing  into  steel-gray.  Found 
in  all  the  mountain  metallic  regions  of  Germany,  and  in  the 
Alps,  mostly  associated  with  the  more  earth-like,  brownish- 
red  substance  known  as  Red  ochcr.  Is  an  excellent  iron 
ore,  but  on  account  of  frequent  admixture  with  sulphur, 
does  not  rank  quite  so  high  as  magnetic  iron. 

Brown  Iron  Stone — Limonite — Brown  Hematite. 
Usually  massive,  sometimes  of  lenticular  form,  and  often 
with  a  smooth,  stalactitic  surface,  having  a  compact, 


456  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

fibrous  structure  within.  H.  =  5.0  to  5.5.  G.  =  3.6 
to  3.8.  Color  all  shades  of  brown,  opaque ;  streak  yel- 
lowish-brown ;  luster  sub-metallic  ;  often  contains  man- 
ganese. The  most  important  variety  belonging  to  the 
composition  of  Brown  Hematite,  is  what  is  called  Clay 
Iron-stone,  or  lenticular  argillaceous  ore,  consisting  of 
small  oolitic  or  globular  masses,  of  brownish  color,  and 
flat,  earthy  fracture.  Yellow  ochre,  another  component 
is  earthy,  loose,  and  is  of  a  brown  or  yellow  color ;  occurs 
in  globular  and  stalactitic  masses.  Clay  Iron-stone  is  of 
dull  color,  impure,  more  or  less  earthy.  Bog  Iron  ore 
is  found  in  globular  or  obtuse  granular  bodies  of  brownish- 
yellow  color ;  loose,  earthy  ;  and  last  of  all  is  Umber,  of 
dark  earth  color,  and  altogether  without  luster.  Brown 
Hematite  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  ores  of  iron.  Found 
in  all  the  stratified  mountain  formations  in  Germany  and 
the  Alps,  occurring  in  the  sand,  loam,  and  clay  strata. 
Ocher  and  Umber  are  employed  as  common  materials  in 
painting.  Plate  32,  fig.  4.  Found  also  abundantly  in 
extensive  beds  in  all  the  Middle  States. 

Manganese  Spar  —  Brownstone — occurs  either  in 
compound  crystals  or  slender  pyramidal  shapes  ;  also 
granular,  with  particles  coherent.  Color  iron-black ; 
luster  metalb'c,  opaque ;  streak  black.  H.  =  2.0  to  2.5. 
G.  =  4.6  to  4.9.  Frequently  found  associated  with 
Brown  Hematite  in  Sweden,  the  Hartz,  and  Siberia.  In 
the  United  States  it  occurs  in  large  masses  in  Massa- 
chusetts and  Maine.  Employed  by  chemists  in  the  pre- 
paration of  different  oxydes  and  chlorine.  Affords  a 
permanent  glazing  to  stone  ware,  and  is  besides  valuable 
in  giving  coloring  to  glass ;  also  as  forming  acids  used  as 
components  of  several  medicines  and  various  chemical 
purposes. 


MINERALOGY.  457 

Tin  Ore —  Tin  Stone — is  found  in  crystals,  also  mas- 
sive and  in  grains.     Colorless  or  yellowish-white  verging 
into  wine  color  or  hyacinthine^red,  but  mostly  brown, 
passing  into  pitch-black,  with  a  high  adamantine  luster. 
"When  in  crystals,  transparent  to  translucent.     Massive, 
opaque,  uniform  and  detached,  infusible.     H.  =  6  to  7. 
G.  =  6.8  to  7.     Found  in  veins  in  the  granite,  gneiss, 
and  mica  slate  rocks.     The  tin  mines  of  Cornwall  in  Eng- 
land are  far-famed ;  in  Germany  tin  is  worked  in  Saxony 
at  Altenburg,  Zinnwald,  etc.     Occurs  also  in  Austria,  in 
Malacca,  Pegu,  China,  and  in  some  of  the  East  India 
Islands.     Spain,  also,  and  Russia  can  boast  of  their  trea- 
sures of  tin.     The  mines  of  Dalecarlia  in  Sweden  are 
scarcely  less  celebrated  than  those  of  Cornwall ;  the  lat- 
ter is  said  to  yield  the  best  product  of  tin,  except  the 
mines  of  Bohemia.     In  America  tin  is  found  in  Chili, 
Mexico,  Brazil;   in  the  United   States  is  met  with  in 
some  of  the  gold  mines  of  Virginia ;    as  native  ore  in 
Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire.*     Plate  32,  fig.  5. 
White  Arsenic  comes  in  white  capillary  crystals  ; 
mostly  colorless,  but  often,  when  impure  by  admixture 
with  other  substances,  reddish  or  gray.     Texture  silky  • 
luster  metallic  pearly,  sub-transparent;  taste  astringent 
sweetish,  disagreeably  metallic.     Occurs  also  as  fibrous, 
slender  stalactites ;  when  heated  gives  off  a  baneful  nau- 
seating odor,  like  that  of  garlic.     Volatizes  readily,  but 
does  not  dissolve  easily  in  water.    H.  —  3.0.    G.  =  3.6 


*  The  Cornwall  miues  are  supposed  to  have  been  worked  long 
before  the  Christian  era.  The  Phceuecians  are  allowed  to  have  traded 
with  Cornubia.  Cornwall  and  Herodotus  (four  hundred  and  fifty 
years  before  Christ)  are  believed  to  allude  to  the  tin  islands  of  Bri- 
tain under  the  cabalistic  name  Cassiterides,  derived  from  the  Greek 
kassiteros,  signifying  tin. — DANA. — Tr. 
20 


458  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

to  3.7.  Arsenic  is  a  deadly  poison.  Taken  even  in 
small  quantities,  it  creates  a  general  disturbance  of  the 
system,  which,  at  last,  ends  in  convulsions  and  death. 
Those  who  work  in  the  arsenic  mines,  seldom  continue 
two  years  without  losing  their  health.  First  there  is  a 
failure  of  appetite,  next  ensues  loss  of  flesh,  the  skin 
becomes  of  a  tawny  hue  and  scales  off,  the  hair  is  lost, 
then  comes  wasting  fever  and  harassing  cough ;  general 
dropsy  takes  possession  of  the  system,  and  is  the  prelude 
to  death.  The  best  remedy  against  poisoning  from 
arsenic  is  sugar  and  water  or  whites  of  raw  eggs ;  also 
freshly-prepared  iron  rust,  which  is  easily  made  with 
muriated  tincture  of  iron  and  spirits  of  ammonia. 

Red  Copper  Ore  —  occurs  foliate,  also  in  spirate, 
slender,  or  capillary  crystals,  and  sometimes  massive ; 
the  capillary  form  variety,  plate  32,  fig.  3,  represents  a 
structure  formed  of  a  network  of  fine  hair-like  crystals, 
irregularly  interlaced  ;  is  the  color  of  cochineal,  passing 
into  gray  and  brown  ;  streak  brownish-red  ;  luster  ada- 
mantine metallic  ;  on  being  splintered  is  nearly  trans- 
parent or  translucent.  It  colors  glass  green.  Found  in 
many  locations  :  Cornwall,  England  ;  Temeswar,  Hun- 
gary; Hartz  mines,  etc..  Germany,  also  in  Siberia  and 
Brazil.  Observed  in  the  United  States  crystallized  and 
massive,  in  the  copper  mines  of  New  Jersey,  Connecti- 
cut, and  New  York.  Crystals  are  often  green  from  a 
coating  of  malachite.  H.  =  3.5  to  4.  Gr.  =  5.7  to  6. 


MINERALOGY.  459 

SECOND  ORDER. 

METALLIFEROUS   EARTHS. 
METALLIC    STONE    ORES    UNITED    WITH   ACIDS. 

Spathic  Iron — Carbonate  of  Iron— sometimes  occurs 
plainly  crystallized  or  foliated,  and  at  others  in  globular 
or  granulate  aggregations.  Color  yellowish-gray,  vary- 
ing to  brown  ;  luster  pearly  to  vitreous ;  partially  trans- 
lucent ;  when  dark-colored,  opaque.  H.  =  3.4  to  4.5. 
Gr.  =  3.6  to  3.9.  Found  in  the  rocks  at  different  ages, 
primary  and  sedimentary ;  occupies  large  beds  in  gneiss, 
grauwacke,  and  also  in  the  coal  formation  ;  often  accom- 
panies metallic  ores ;  occurs  abundant  in  the  Erzgebirge, 
Hartz,  Styria,  and  Corinthia.  English  locality,  Corn- 
wall, Alstonmoor.  In  the  United  States  it  is  found  in 
Connecticut,  traversing  gneiss  ;  occurs  also  in  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  and  the  coal  regions  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Bog  Ore — Iron  Stone — occurs  either  in  granular  form 
or  in  brittle,  loosely-aggregated,  spongy  masses ;  earthy 
and  of  various  degrees  of  hardness  and  specific  gravitjr ; 
luster  sub-metallic,  dull ;  color  ochrous,  dark  brown  ; 
fracture  brittle,  or  chonchoidal,  opaque.  Bog  iron  ore  is 
often  mixed  with  phosphoric  acid,  and  also  with  some 
salts  of  organic  acids  formed  in  marshy  grounds.  Pro- 
ceeds from  decomposition  of  other  species,  and  often 
takes  the  form  of  leaves,  etc.,  found  in  swampy  soils. 
Bog  ore  is  abundant  in  the  United  States.  Localities, 
in  nearly  all  the  Eastern  and  Middle  States ;  in  Europe, 
North  Germany,  Russia,  Sweden,  Bohemia,  bog  ore 
forms  large  beds.  Found  in  marshy  grounds,  in  the 


460  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

bottoms  of  stagnant  pools  or  extended  moors,  either  in 
foliated  crystallizations  or  in  rounded  masses,  and  even 
as  mud.  The  iron  yielded  by  bog  ore  is  what  is  called 
cold  short,  owing  to  the  presence  of  phosphorus.  Com- 
position peroxyd  of  iron  85.3,  water  14.7. 

Calamine — Zincspath — Carbonate  of  Zinc.  Sel- 
dom crystallized,  mostly  granular,  compact,  earthy ; 
colorless  or  impure  white,  sometimes  gray,  green,  brown 
or  red ;  luster  vitreous  and  pearly ;  sub-transparent  to 
translucent  ;  turns  white  by  burning,  dissolves  with 
effervescence  in  nitric  acid.  H.  =  5.  G.  =  4.4  to  4.5. 
Found  in  calcareous  rocks  belonging  to  the  latest  forma- 
tions. Occurs  in  Silesia,  Siberia,  Hungary,  and  Poland, 
also  in  veins  and  beds  in  Pennsylvania,  Missouri,  Con- 
necticut, etc.,  in  the  United  States.  Calamine  is  the 
most  important  representative  of  the  zinc  ores,  is  em- 
ployed for  many  purposes,  and  is  of  especial  use  in  the 
manufacture  of  brass. 

White  Lead  Ore — Carbonate  of  Lead — Ceruse. 
Found  in  crystallized  forms,  in  granular,  or  fibrous 
aggregations ;  luster  partly  resinous  or  greasy,  partly 
metallic,  adamantine.  When  pure,  the  color  is  white ; 
otherwise,  gray,  brown,  black,  green,  or  blue ;  trans- 
parent, sub-translucent.  By  burning  decrepitates 
strongly,  fuses,  and  finally,  with  care,  on  charcoal, 
affords  a  globule  of  lead.  Effervesces  in  nitric  acid. 
H.  =  3.0  to  3.5.  G.  =  6.4  to  6.6.  Occurs  in  all  the 
lead  mines  or  with  other  lead  ores  in  Silurian  slate. 
Localities  of  best  lead  mines  are  in  Europe,  Germany, 
Bohemia,  Siberia,  England  and  Scotland,  Alston  Moor, 
United  States,  Perkiomen  lead  mines,  near  Philadelphia, 
Yalle's  Diggings,  Missouri,  and  in  other  mines  of  the 
West,  Massachusetts,  North  Carolina,  New  York,  etc. 


MINERALOGY.  461 

When  abundant,  this  ore  is  wrought  for  lead.  Large 
quantities  occur  about  the  mines  of  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley. Carbonate  of  lead  is  the  White  Lead  of  com- 
merce, so  extensively  used  as  a  paint.  The  material  for 
this  purpose  is,  however,  artificially  made,  being  pre- 
pared from  sheet  lead  by  the  process  with  vinegar  and 
wine  lees.  Carbonate  of  lead,  mixed  with  sulphur  and 
barytes,  forms  what  is  called  Venice  White.  Caledo- 
nite  is  a  compound  of  the  carbonates  of  lead,  copper, 
and  sulphate  of  lead.  In  crystals  ;  from  lead  hills  and 
red  gill ;  also  from  the  Missouri  mines. 

Malachite — Green  Carbonate  of  Copper.  Usually  in 
incrustations,  partly  earth-like,  partly  tuberous ;  struc- 
ture firmly  fibrous.  Color  light  green,  sometimes  very 
bright.  Crystals  transparent,  luster  adamantine,  nearly 
opaque;  heated  in  a  matrass,  yields  water,  and  black- 
ens ;  fuses  on  charcoal,  and  affords  a  globule  of  copper ; 
dissolves  with  effervescence  in  acids.  H.  =  3.5  to  4.0. 
G.  =  3.6  to  4.0.  Green  malachite  usually  accompanies 
other  copper  ores ;  found  in  all  the  mines  of  the  north 
in  both  hemispheres,  those  of  Siberia,  the  Ural  moun- 
tains, the  Hartz  in  Hungary,  are  the  most  noted  foreign 
localities.  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania and  Wisconsin  have  afforded  handsome  speci- 
mens; the  ore  from  the  Peccatonica,  Wisconsin,  has 
been  smelted  on  the  spot  and  exported  to  England.  This 
mineral  receives  a  high  polish,  and  on  this  account,  a,s 
well  as  that  of  its  beautiful  color,  is  sometimes  set  and 
used  as  jewelry ;  in  Russia,  where  it  is  obtained  in  very 
large  masses,  it  is  made  into  vases,  slabs  for  tables,  man- 
tle-pieces, etc.,  which  are  of  exquisite  beauty,  owing  to 
the  delicate  shadings  of  the  radiations  and  zones  of  color. 


462  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

THIRD  ORDER. 
SCHWEFELKIES.— IRON  ORES  COMBINED  WITH  SULPHUR. 

Schwefelkies — Iron  Pyrites — Bisulphurct  of  Iron — 
the  most  widely  spread  of  all  the  ores,  occurs  abundantly 
in  rocks  of  all  ages,  from  the  oldest  crystalline  to  the  most 
recent  alluvial  deposits,  either  in  the  form  of  cubes  or 
crystals ;  granular  stalactitic  masses,  and  often  in  irreg- 
ular spheroidal  nodules.  Color  bronze-yellow,  gold,  red, 
or  copper,  running  into  brown  veins,  streaked  brown  or 
black ;  luster  splendent  metallic ;  when  broken  or  struck 
sends  forth  a  sulphurous  odor,  which  is  increased  by 
burning  on  charcoal.  H.  —  6  to  5.  G.  =  4.9  to  5.1. 
Found  in  veins  or  ore-beds  in  clay-slate,  gray wacke ;  in 
short,  all  the  primary  rock  formations,  in  every  country, . 
and  strewn  about  in  various  localities.  This  species  is 
of  high  importance  in  the  arts,  although  not  affording 
good  iron ;  heated,  it  gives  off  sulphur,  and  by  a  chem- 
ical process  yields  sulphate  of  iron  (green  vitriol  or 
copperas),  and  sulphuric  acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  of  com- 
merce, and  also  a  considerable  portion  of  sulphur  and 
alum.  Iron  pyrites  were  formerly  used  for  striking  fire, 
instead  of  flints. 

Mispickel — Arsenical  Iron  Pyrites — occur  in  crys- 
tals, prisms,  massive  or  irregularly  granular.  Color 
silver- white  or  steel-gray;  luster  shining  and  opaque. 
Fused  (or  before  the  blow-pipe),  affords  arsenical  fumes, 
accompanied  with  a  sulphurous  odor.  H.  =  5.5  to  6. 
G.  =  6  to  6.2.  Localities  Freiburg.  Altenberg,  Sieben- 
gebirge,  and  elsewhere  in  Europe ;  Cornwall  in  Eng- 
land, and  in  various  places  throughout  the  Eastern  States. 
Found  mostly  in  primitive  regions,  and  is  commonly  as- 


MINERALOGY.  463 

sociated  with  ores  of  silver,  lead,  iron,  and  copper.  Serves 
to  represent  Arsenious  Acid  (White  Arsenic,  the  well- 
known  poison),  and  Sulphurets  of  Arsenic  (Orpiment  or 
King's  Yellow,  Yellow  Sulphuret)  and  Realgar  (Red 
Sulphuret)  of  Arsenic.  Arsenious  acid,  with  oxyd  of 
copper,  produces  a  fine  pigment  called  Scheele's  Green. 

Smaltine —  Tin-  White — Arsenical  Cobalt  —  occurs 
in  crystalline,  massive  structures,  also  in  reticulated  or 
other  imitative  shapes.  Color  tin-white,  inclining  to 
steel-gray;  streak,  grayish-black  ;  luster,  metallic,  opaque. 
By  burning  emits  copious  arsenical  fumes ;  colors  glass 
in  a  fluid  state,  blue ;  also  gives  a  blue  color  to  porcelain 
and  stone-ware.  Localities  France,  England,  Sweden, 
and  Germany ;  especially  at  Joachimstahl,  in  Bohemia, 
where  it  is  found  in  veins  associated  with  other  ores  of 
cobalt  and  ores  of  silver  and  copper.  In  Connecticut  it 
occurs  with  copper  nickel  in  veins  traversing  gneiss. 
With  silex  and  potash  it  affords  smalt ;  is  scarce,  and 
highly  valued. 

Copper  Pyrites — Sulphuret  of  Copper  and  Iron. 
Form  and  composition  compound  complex  crystal ;  also 
globular,  massive,  stalactitate,  granular,  sometimes  im- 
palpable. Color  brassy-yellow  or  varied  brown ;  luster 
shining,  opaque ;  streak,  greenish-black.  On  being 
roasted  gives  off  fumes  of  burning  sulphur.  Colors  glass 
green.  II.  =.  3.5  to  4.0.  G.  =  4.1  to  4.  3.  Occurs 
in  granite,  and  nearly  all  the  other  formations,  in  veins 
or  beds  associated  with  other  copper  ores ;  foreign  local- 
ities Ross  Island,  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  Norway,  Sweden, 
South  Tyrol,  Hungary,  Siberia,  Freiburg  in  the  Hartz 
mining  regions,  etc.  Fine  crystallizations  occur  in  the 
Bristol  copper  mine,  Connecticut,  in  granite,  also  at 
Cheshire,  in  red  sandstone,  and  in  the  same  State  with 


4G4  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

malachite  and  heavy  spar.     Massive  varieties  are  found 
at  the  New  Jersey  mines,  and  in  Pennsylvania. 

Copper  Glance — Vitreous  Copper  Ore.  Seldom 
plainly  crystallized,  mostly  of  massive  structure,  granu- 
lar or  compact,  and  disseminate.  Color  lead-gray,  some- 
times streaked  ;  luster  shining  metallic,  streak  blackish  ; 
opaque.  H.  =  2.5  to  3.0.  G.  5.4  to  5.7.  Heated, 
gives  off  fumes  of  burning  sulphur.  Occurs  associ- 
ated with  the  above  described,  and  is  used  for  the  same 
purposes. 

Silver  Glance — Vitreous  Silver — Sulphuret  of  Sil- 
ver— occurs  in  various  forms,  as  crystals,  simple  and  com- 
pound ;  reticulated,  filiform,  arborescent ;  also  massive. 
Color  lead-gray,  often  brown  and  black,  varied  or  veined ; 
luster  metallic,  shining,  flexible,  opaque ;  streak  black ; 
intumesces  by  heat,  and  gives  off  a  sulphurous  odor.  H. 
=  2  to  2.5.  G-.  =  6.8  to  7.1.  Localities  Mexico,  Chili, 
Peru,  Chemnitz,  Hungary,  etc.,  and  in  the  mining  re- 
gions of  the  Schneeberg  and  Hartz  in  Germany.  It  is  a 
common  ore  in  the  mines  of  Mexico  and  South  Amer- 
ica ;  a  mass  of  sulphuret  of  silver  is  said  to  have  been 
found  at  Sparta,  Tennessee.  "Occurs  also  with  native 
silver  and  copper  in  Northern  Michigan;  considered  a 
highly  valuable  ore. 

Lead  Glance — Galena — Sulphuret  of  Lead — occurs 
mostly  in  crystals,  but  also  in  globules,  reticulated,  tab- 
ular and  massive ;  color  lead-gray,  sometimes  iridescent. 
Luster  metallic;  streak,  dark  gray;  opaque.  Decrepi- 
tates by  burning,  unless  heated  with  caution,  and  mostly 
contains  a  portion  of  silver.  II.  —  2.5.  G.  =  7.5  to 
7.7.  Galena  is  found  everywhere,  from  the  primary 
rock  formation  to  the  Lias  system:  associated  with  ores 
of  zinc,  silver,  and  copper.  The  deposits  of  this  ore  in 


MINERALOGY.  465 

the  United  States  are  remarkable  for  their  extent.  They 
abound  in  the  cliff  limestone  in  the  mines  of  Missouri, 
Illinois,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin ;  the  lead  region  of  the 
latter  occupying  a  space  of  eighty-seven  miles  from  east 
to  west,  and  fifty-four  from  north  to  south.  Occurs  in 
large  rich  veins  and  deposits,  in  the  mining  regions  of 
the  Hartz,  Black  Forest,  Bohemia,  Carinthia,  and  moun- 
tains of  Granada.  Plate  32,  fig.  6.  The  lead  of  com- 
merce and  lead  ochre,  Bleiglatt,  Plumbic  ochre  (pro- 
toxyd  of  lead)  is  obtained  from  this  ore.  It  is  also 
employed,  in  its  rough  state  for  glazing  common  stone 
ware.  For  this  purpose  it  is  ground  into  an  impalpable 
powder,  and  mixed  with  water  and  clay;  into  this  liquid 
the  earthen  vessel  is  dipped  and  then  baked. 

Molybdenite  or  Wasserblei — S-ulphuret  of  Molyb- 
dena — occurs  in  hexagonal  crystals ;  scales,  or  masses 
thin,  foliated  or  disseminate  ;  color,  light  lead-gray  ; 
luster,  metallic  ;  has  a  greasy  feel ;  fuses  when  heated  on 
charcoal,  gives  off  fumes  of  sulphur,  detonizes  with 
saltpeter,  and  dissolves  in  nitric  acid ;  deflagrates  with 
nitre.  Occurs  in  granite  and  all  the  allied  rocks  of  the 
primitive  formation  in  numerous  localities  in  North 
America,  Norway,  Sweden,  Silesia,  and  in  the  Cornish 
mines  in  England.  II.  =  1  to  1.5.  G.  =  4.5  to  4.6. 

Gray  Antimony — Antimony  Glance — Sulphuret  of 
Antimony — is  found  usually  in  tufts  of  capillary  crystals, 
sometimes  divergent,  fibrous,  and  columnar,  at  others 
massive,  granular ;  color  lead-gray  to  steel-gray,  often 
striated  ;  luster  metallic,  iridescent,  opaque  ;  fuses  read- 
ily; on  charcoal  is  absorbed,  giving  off  fumes  of  sul- 
phur ;  dissolves  in  muriatic  acid  with  most  offensive 
odor.  H.  =  2.0.  G.  =  4.5  to  4.7.  This  ore  affords 
the  antimony  of  commerce,  namely,  Crude  Antimony 
20  * 


466  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

and  Metallic  Antimony.  The  first,  obtained  by  simple 
fusion,  -which  separates  the  accompanying  rock,  is  the 
antimony  of  the  shops.  The  smelting  process  extracts 
the  pure  metal  and  forms  the  latter,  which,  alloyed  with 
tin,  forms  the  metal  on  which  music  is  engraved,  with  4 
to  16  parts  lead  to  one  of  antimony,  is  used  in  the  mak- 
ing of  type  metal.  It  is  a  constituent  of  Britannia  ware. 

Silverblende — Dark  red  Silver  Ore — Sitlphuret  of 
Silver  and  Antimony.  Composition  partly  of  silver 
and  partly  of  arsenic.  In  the  first  case  it  mostly  occurs 
crystallized,  in  the  latter  the  structure  is  massive,  clus- 
tery, and  disseminate.  1.  That  containing  antimony 
(dark  red  silver  ore)  has  a  metallic  adamantine  luster  ; 
color  crimson-black,  approaching  lead-gray ;  streak  cher- 
ry-red, sometimes  translucent  on  the  edges;  fuses  on 
charcoal,  gives  out  a  sulphurous  odor,  and  yields  a  dark 
metallic  globule,  from  which  silver  may  be  obtained. 
H.  =  2.5  to  3.0.  G.  =  5.78  to  5.85.  Occurs  princi- 
pally with  calcareous  spar,  native  arsenic,  and  galena  in 
the  Hartz,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  and  Norway.  In  Mexico 
is  worked  extensively  as  an  ore  of  silver.  2.  Arsenica- 
blende,  light  red  silver  ore  ;  luster  adamantine  ;  color 
cochineal-red  ;  streak  Aurora-red  ;  by  burning  gives  off 
sulphurous  and  arsenical  fumes,  instead  of  oxyd  of  anti- 
mony. Localities  Bohemia,  the  Hartz  and  Black  For- 
est. This  is  a  very  valuable  and  important  ore  for 
obtaining  silver,  especially  at  the  South  American 
mines. 

Cinnabar — Sulphuret  of  Mercury — occurs  partly  in 
small  crystals,  partly  in  massive  or  fibrous  structures  : 
of  disseminated  globules  or  in  arborescent  formations  on 
rocks.  Color  cochineal  red,  sometimes  vary  into  lead- 
gray;  streak  scarlet  red;  luster  adamantine,  unmetal- 


MINERALOGY.  467 

lie  in  dark-colored  varieties,  sub-transparent,  translu- 
cent, opaque.  By  burning  in  a  matrass,  it  wholly  sub- 
limates ;  triturated  with  iron  filings,  and  afterwards 
melted,  forms  metallic  quicksilver,  and  is  highly  valu- 
able for  silvering  mirrors,  employed  also  for  thermome- 
ters, barometers,  and  is  indispensable  for  various  pur- 
poses in  medicine  and  the  arts.  Principal  localities,  the 
mines  of  Almaden  in  Spain,  Idria  in  Austria,  Peru, 
Mexico,  New  Granada,  and  China.  Cinna,bar  ore  is  the 
great  source  of  the  mercury  of  commerce,  from  which  it 
is  obtained  by  sublimation.  H.  =  2.0  to  2.5.  G.  =  8.6 
to  8.7.  Used  also  as  vermilion,  a  well  known  valuable 
pigment. 

~Yellow  Orpiment — Ranschgelb —  Yellow  Sulphuret 
of  Arsenic.  Crystals  massive,  foliated,  columnar,  some- 
times reniform  ;  luster  resinous  or  pearly ;  color  different 
shades  of  lemon  yellow ;  streak,  paler  yellow,  translu- 
cent, sectile ;  thin  laminae  obtained  by  cleavage,  flexible. 
Burns  on  charcoal  with  a  whitish-yellow  flame,  and 
emits  fumes  of  sulphur  and  arsenic,  which  are  its  com- 
ponent parts.  Found  in  veins  in  the  mining  regions  of 
the  Hartz,  Siebengebirgen,  Tyrol,  also  in  the  volcanic 
districts,  where  it  is  the  result  of  volcanic  sublimation. 
H.  =  1.5  to  2.0.  G.  =  3.4  to  3.5.  Is  very  poison- 


FOUBTH    OEDER. 

PURE   OR   NATIVE   ORES. 

METALS  MORE  OR  LESS  PURE,  OR  NATIVE  METALS. 

Pure  or  Native  Iron  is  steel-gray,  passing  into  silver- 
white,  after  casting  black;    luster  metallic,   magnetic; 


468  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

with  rough  surface,  very  tough  and  hard ;  contains  nickel 
and  several  other  metals.  Whether  or  not  native  iron  is 
of  terrestrial  origin,  is  a  question  of  some  doubt ;  it  is  by 
many  believed  to  be  found  pure  only  in  meteoric  stones 
(stones  which  have  fallen  from  the  heavens).  The  phen- 
omena of  iron  rain,  or  the  falling  of  single  stones,  al- 
though rare,  have  really  occurred  at  certain  periods,  also 
in  masses  like  stones,  of  large  size  and  in  considerable 
numbers.*  Meteoric  stones  are  always  hot  when  they 
reach  the  earth,  on  account  of  the  great  rapidity  with 
which  they  descend.  Many  opinions  have  been  formed 
respecting  their  origin ;  some  (the  fewest  number)  believe 
them  to  be  the  ruins  of  some  disruptured  sphere ;  this 
conjecture  is,  however,  very  improbable ;  others  have 
supposed  them  to  be  the  germs  of  those  newly  existing 
bodies,  called  Asteroids;  and  a  third  party  contend  that 
they  are  the  ejections  of  some  mighty  volcano  in  the 
moon.  This  opinion,  supported  as  it  is  by  astronomical 
observation,  is  the  most  probable  conclusion,  yet,  how 
they  have  been  produced  must  ever  remain  a  mystery. 
H.  =  5.0  to  6.0.  G.  =  6.0  to  7.8.  The  chemical 
sign  for  iron  is  6  . 

Native  Copper  is  met  with  in  crystallized  forms,  vari- 
ously modified,  sometimes  also  in  massive  shapes,  arbor- 
escent, filiform,  and  loosely  disseminate  in  minute  par- 
ticles. Color  copper  red,  often  brown  and  yellow  stri- 
ated ;  luster  metallic,  opaque,  ductile,  malleable ;  dis- 
solves readily  in  nitric  acid,  and  produces  a  blue  solution 
with  ammonia.  Found  in  the  primary  and  transition 
rock  formations  in  Hungary,  Sweden.  Norway,  Siberia, 

*  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  of  these  meteorites  is  preserved 
in  the  cabinet  of  Yale  College;  weighs  1635  pounds;  length  b  feet 
4  inches  ;  breadth  2  feet,  4  inches  ;  height  1  foot,  4  inches. 


MINERALOGY.  469 

Germany,  and  most  abundantly  in  North  America ;  but 
no  known  locality  in  the  world  exceeds  in  the  abundance 
of  native  copper  the  Lake  Superior  region,  where  it 
occurs  mostly  in  vertical  seams  in  trap  and  masses  of 
sandstone.  A  large  bowlder,  weighing  3704  pounds, 
taken  from  thence  is  now  at  Washington,  and  another 
from  the  same  vicinity,  weighing  137  pounds,  has  been 
many  years  in  the  Yale  College  collections.  H.  =  2.5 
to  3.0.  Gr.  =  8.3  to  9.0.  Chemical  sign  $  . 

Native  Lead.  Lead  rarely  occurs  pure,  but  when 
met  with,  shows  itself  thread-like,  in  thin  laminse  or 
globules,  coarse  or  fine  granular.  Color  lead-gray; 
opaque ;  ductile,  malleable ;  fuses  easily ;  dissolves  in 
nitric  acid,  but  precipitates  in  sulphuric  acid.  H.  = 
1.0  to  2.0.  G.  =  11.  This  species,  of  doubtful  exist- 
ence and  very  rare,  is  said  to  be  met  with  at  Alston- 
moor,  England,  in  lava  in  Madeira,  in  the  mines  of  Car- 
thagena,  Murcia,  in  carboniferous  limestone,  Bristol, 
and  at  Kenmore,  Ireland.  Chemical  sign  h. 

Native  Mercury  or  Quicksilver  exists  in  a  native 
state,  but  occurs  mostly  as  a  sulphuret  (cinnabar),  in 
small  fluid  globules  or  drops  scattered  along  the  gan- 
gue.* Luster,  strongly  shining  metallic :  color,  tin- 
white;  opaque.  Freezes  at  32°  E.,  boils  at  280°  R., 
vaporizes  at  all  degrees  of  heat ;  dissolves  readily  in 
nitric  acid.  The  common  name  of  quicksilver  is  a  trans- 
lation of  the  old  name  for  mercury,  argentum  vivum. 
G.  —  13.5  to  13.6.  Found  always  associated  with  cin- 
nabar. Chemical  sign  $ . 

*  The  rock  immediately  enveloping  the  ore  is  called  the  Gangue. 
A  vein  often  consists  for  the  most  part  of  the  rock  material  called 
the  Gangue.  The  usual  gangue  in  metallic  veins  is  either  quartz, 
calc-spar,  or  heavy  spar ;  less  frequently  fluor  spar. — DANA. 


470  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

Native  Silver  occurs  in  various  forms,  as  compound 
crystals,  coarse  and  fine  filiform  shapes,  reticulated, 
string-like  or  arborescent;  also  in  plates,  superficial 
coatings,  and  granular,  compact  masses.  Color  and 
streak  silver-white ;  subject  to  tarnish,  by  which  the 
color  changes  to  yellowish  or  grayish-black.  Luster 
metallic,  opaque;  ductile,  malleable.  Dissolves  in 
nitric  acid,  and  with  a  solution  of  sea-salt  and  cream 
of  tartar,  precipitates  as  chloride  of  silver.  H.  =  2.5 
to  3.0.  G.  =  10.3  to  10.5.  Chemical  sign  ®.  The 
European  localities  which  have  afforded  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  native  silver  are  Konigsberg  in  Norway  (these 
mines  are  now  mostly  under  water),  Saxony,  Freiburg, 
Schneeberg,  Black  Forest,  the  Hartz  and  Ural  moun- 
tains, also  in  the  Altai  at  Schlangenberg,  and  in  some 
of  the  Cornish  mines.  Occurs  mostly  in  the  primary 
and  transition  rock  formations. 

No  silver  mines,  however,  can  compete  with  those  of 
Peru,  Chili,  and  Mexico.  One  specimen  brought  from 
the  latter  weighed  four  hundred  pounds ;  another,  from 
the  mines  of  Huantaga,  weighed  over  eight  hundred 
weight.  During  the  first  eighteen  years  of  the  present 
century  more  than  8,180,000  marks  of  silver  were 
afforded  by  the  mines  of  Guanaxuoto  alone.  Since  the 
discovery  of  the  rich  silver  mines  of  America,  the 
amount  of  the  precious  metal  obtained  is  enormous. 
These  alone,  in  three  hundred  and  eleven  years,  have 
furnished  512,700,000  marks  of  silver.  Upon  the 
whole,  it  is  calculated  that  at  the  present  time  3.924,000 
marks  of  pure  silver  are  obtained  from  the  American 
mines,  and  of  the  8,000,000  sterling  which  is  calculated 
as  the  value  of  the  silver  annually  furnished  by  the 
mines  of  the  world,  two-thirds  are  obtained  from  Mex- 


MINERALOGY.  471 

ico.  In  the  United  States  silver  is  disseminated  through 
much  of  the  copper  of  Michigan.  Also  found  in  New 
Jersey,  and  in  King's  Mine,  North  Carolina,  Plate  32, 
fig.  2. 

Native  Gold  occurs  pure  in  cubes;  crystals  very 
small;  also  in  grains,  laminae  and  masses,  filiform,  reti- 
culated; also  in  arborescent  tufts  of  moss-like  shapes. 
Often  in  flattened  scales  or  plates,  and  in  rolled  masses 
in  gravel  or  sand  detritus.  Luster  metallic.  Color 
varying  from  different  shades  of  gold  yellow  to  brassy 
and  silver-gray;  opaque;  ductile,  malleable.  Gold  is 
often  rendered  impure  by  being  mixed  with  silver ;  also 
often  contains  copper  and  iron.  H.  =  2.5  to  3.0.  G. 
=  12.6  to  19.09.  Chemical  designation  0.  Dissolves 
in  aqua  regia,  or  a  mixture  of  muriatic  and  nitric  acids. 
Gold  is  widely  distributed  all  over  the  globe,  although 
seldom  found  in  large  masses.  Mostly  occurs  in  quartz, 
pyrites  (auriferous),  brown  iron-stone,  feldspar,  horn- 
blende, stone,  and  in  conglomerate  and  stratified  transi- 
tion rocks ;  the  detritus  affording  gold  has  proceeded 
from  the  gold-bearing  rocks.  Occurs  in  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, Peru,  Mexico,  New  Spain,  California,  Brazil ; 
also  in  Hungary,  Siebengebirgen,  Saltzburg,  Graub- 
unden ;  and  in  very  small  quantities  in  Bohemia,  Hartz, 
and  Tyrol.  The1  Russian  mines  are  said  to  be,  at  pres- 
ent, the  most  productive  in  the  world.  Considerable 
quantities  of  gold  sand  or  gold  dust  is  obtained  from  the 
alluvial  washings  of  the  large  rivers  of  South  America 
called  wash  gold.  The  sands  of  the  Rhine,  Rhone, 
Danube,  Isar,  Moselle,  and  other  rivers  in  Germany 
contain  gold  in  small  quantities  ;  of  these  the  Rhine  has 
been  the  most  productive;  at  present  only  $9,000  are 
extracted  annually.  The  whole  amount  of  gold  in  the 


472  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

auriferous  sands  of  the  Rhine  is  estimated  at  .$30.000,000. 
Africa  yields  annually  4.500  pounds,  troy,  $850,000,  and 
Southern  Africa  1,250  pounds,  $235.000.  The  mines  of 
South  America  and  Mexico  were  estimated  by  Hum- 
boldt  to  yield  annually  about  $11,500.000,  Brazil 
17.500  pounds  troy;  and  between  1790  and  1830  Mex- 
ico produced  $31,250.000  in  gold,  Chili  $13,450,000, 
and  Buenos  Ayres  $19,500,000,  making  an  average  an- 
nual yield  of  $16,050.000. 

The  mines  of  the  Southern  United  States  have  pro- 
duced of  late  about  a  million  of  dollars  annually.  Local- 
ities of  gold  mines  in  the  United  States  are  Virginia, 
North  and  South  Carolina.  Georgia,  and  Eastern  Ten- 
nessee. The  California  gold  mines  are  ^mostly  alluvial. 
The  gold  is  found  in  the  gravel  and  sand  of  the  valleys 
and  beds  of  streams  leading  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  into 
the  adjoining  valleys  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joa- 
quim.  Pebbles  of  quartz  abound  in  this  region,  also 
magnetic  iron.  Native  gold  is  also  found  disseminated 
through  quartz  and  talcose  rocks,  confined  to  veins ;  the 
precious  grains  may  sometimes  be  seen  shining  in  the 
cavities  of  the  quartz  rock,  or  sparkling  on  a  surface  of 
fracture.  Plate  32,  fig.  1. 

Native  Platinum  seldom  occurs  in  crystals;  most 
commonly  in  flattened  or  angular  grains  or  irregular 
masses :  is  never  pure,  but  combined  with  more  or  less 
of  the  rare  metals,  as  iridium,  palladium,  etc.,  besides 
copper,  iron,  and  chrome.  Luster  metallic :  color  steel- 
gray,  opaque ;  ductile  and  malleable.  H.  =  5.0  to  6.0. 
G.  =  17.1  to  17.9.  Pure  platinum  is  the  hardest  and 
most  infusible  of  all  metals,  and  is,  besides,  the  heaviest 
body  known ;  its  weight,  when  freed  from  all  alloy,  being 
G.  =  21.0.  It  occurs  with  native  gold  in  brown  iron- 


MINERALOGY.  473 

stone  (Hematite),  especially  in  greenstone  and  syenite 
(granite  containing  hornblende  in  place  of  mica),  mostly 
however,  in  alluvial  or  drift  material  and  detritus  from 
the  crystalline  rocks.  Discovered  of  late  years  in  great 
abundance  in  the  Ural  mountains,  Burmah  or  Borneo, 
and  South  America.  The  Demidoff  mines  in  the  Ural, 
produce  a  large  amount  of  platinum,  amounting  annu- 
ally from  six  to  seven  thousand  marks.  On  account  of 
its  dull  gray  lead  color,  platinum  is  considered  less  valu- 
able for  ornamental  purposes  than  gold  or  silver ;  never- 
theless it  is  a  highly  important  and  useful  metal.  Its 
infusibility  even  in  the  highest  temperature  (as  it  can 
only  be  operated  upon  by  intense  artificial  heat  and 
strong  pressure,  and  its  property  of  resisting  nearly  all 
chemical  agents  as  well  as  the  action  of  air  and  water), 
renders  it  most  valuable  in  the  construction  of  philosoph- 
ical and  chemical  apparatus.  It  fuses  before  the  compound 
blowpipe,  dissolves  in  boiling  aqua  regia,  but  is  alto- 
gether unaffected  by  sulphuric  or  any  other  of  the  pure 
acids.  In  scarcity,  beauty,  ductility  and  indestructibil- 
ity it  is  thus  scarcely  inferior  to  gold. 

We  have  now  concluded  our  task  of  investigating  the 
three  Kingdoms  of  Nature,  and  in  presenting  specimens 
from  each,  trust,  that  although  our  sketches  are  neces- 
sarily imperfect  (for  the  field  is  a  wide  one),  we  shall 
have  interested  our  readers  so  far  as  to  induce  a  further 
study  of  the  wonders  of  Creation,  and  enlarge  their 
conceptions  of  the  wisdom,  power,  and  goodness  of  Him 
who  could  call  a  world  from  naught.  In  the  curious 
and  wonderful  structure  of  man,  the  highest  link  in  the 
chain  of  being — passing  down  through  the  graduated 
scale  of  existence  to  the  lowest  zoophyte — in  the  whole 


474  NATURAL   HISTORY. 

economy  of  the  universe,  animate  and  inanimate,  is 
everywhere  to  be  traced  the  evidences  of  the  wisdom, 
the  skill,  the  benevolence  and  justice  of  that  great  over- 
ruling Intelligence  ' '  who  has  made  ail  things,  who  up- 
holds all  things,"  and  whose  works  all  praise  Him. 
Let  the  young  student,  then,  in  contemplating  the  whole 
assemblage  which  constitutes  the  perfection  of  the  earth — 
his  own  curious  structure  first — from  the  beasts  of  the 
forests,  the  fish  of  the  sea,  and  birds  of  the  air ;  the  rep- 
tiles that  live  in  the  dark  recesses,  the  insects  that  flutter 
throughout  their  life's  short  day  in  the  sunshine,  the 
chambered  shells  of  the  ocean  caves  and  odorous  flow- 
ers, the  rich  mineral  and  metallic  treasures  of  the  earth, 
recognize  in  all,  for  all  proclaim  it,  the  prospective  be- 
nevolence of  the  Great  Creator,  who  thus  prepared  the 
world  as  a  fitting  residence  for  His  favorite  creature,  Man. 


INDEX. 


ICHTHYOLOGY  AND  ENTOMOLOGY. 


Acanthvoptergii  
Achilles  
Acteon  

Adderbots 

PAOK 

...     18 
....  180 
...  126 
.  138 

Beetles,  Golden  

PAGE 
113 

118 

Hunting  
Hessian  Fly 

118 

118 

Red-footed 

112 

180 

112 

A<*ite  Win" 

155 

Swimming  Gnat... 
Tizer  
Water  
Carrion- 

115 
114 
114 

117 

...     68 

Anchovies  

...     24 
...  186 
189 

Cabinet 

Yellow   ^ 

189 

Black  Leaf  Lion  .... 
Fur  Moth  

113 
113 

120 

White  

...  142 

Ant  Lion  
Ape  Fish  

...  141 

...     51 
...    99 

93 

119 
199 

Bread  
Dun::  
Horse  
Horned  or  Stag  
Rhinoceros  

124 
124 
124 
125 
125 
111 

\rcher 

19 

Architect  
Argonaut  
Ascarides  

B. 
Balance  Fish  

...     19 
.  .  .     62 
...  197 

44 

31 

67 
31 
67 
32 

Bitterling  
Bivalves  
Blav  

Barnacles  -  

...     78 
...     15 

Bleak  
Book-Scorpion  
Bream,  Red  
Common  

.  .     82 
9ti 

'.'.'.'.'.'.    32 

'.  '.  '.  '.  '.  '.     25 
129 

...  181 

Bee  Wolf  

...  116 

Beech  Spinner  
Belemnites  
Beetles,  Herbivorous  
Beecher  Springer  

...  157 

'.'.'.  103 

...  105 

Bullet  Fish  
Burbot  

130 

Diamond  
Death  Wratch  
Jumping  
Musk  
Oak  
Orchard  
Leaf  Eater  

...  106 
...  109 
...  109 
...  Ill 
...  Ill 

...  104 
...  110 

Garden  

130 
181 

181 

Water 

Butterflies  
Blue  Ribbon  
Copper  Wing.  .  .  . 
Goat  Moth  
Red  Wing  
Red  Ribbon  
Butterflv,  Moths,  Spinners.. 
i"    Brown  Bear  
Corner  Spot  
Fir-tree  Spinner. 
Gipsey  Moth  

144 

U.7 

157 
15S 
157 
157 
157 
162 
159 
161 
161 

fine               

...  105 

...  109 
...  109 
...  104 
...  in* 

:::  a 

Skipjack  
Trunk  
Wood  
Carnivorous  
Bombardier  
Bacon  

Golden  Tail  

161 

Lackey  

161 

476 


INDEX. 


PAGE   I  PAOU 

Butterfly,  Lappet 1GO    Colnmbat l<)-2 

Matron 162    Comma 172 

Peacock's  Eye 162    Conchology ".  '.".    53 

Processionaries. 159    Copper  Win <*  ""  156 

bilk  Worm 163    Corn  Worm  T ..."  "  IIMJ 

Tiger _» 162    Crab,  Kiver So 

Vaporer 1591  Common..  89 

Walnut 159  Hermit '.'.'.         ."    87 

Butterflies,  Flatterers 174  ;  Pocket  as 

Admiral,  Bed 177  <  Sea '.'.  "     8S 

White 177J  Spider B8 

Apollo 179    Crepnscnlaria 164 

Aurora 174    Cricket,  Field l"s 

C.  Bird 175  Mole 123 

Chessboard 175    Crimson  Underwing 157 

Ice  Bird 173    Crustacea  Eiit 

GoldSpot 175     Cuirassier 36 

Large  Cab.  Bat 174     Cuttle  Fish 61 

Large  Fox 176 

Little  Fox 176  D 

Motlier-of-Pearl  Bird 175     Dart  pjin 

p'<'1<i'J>™b^a<^y i"     Dentalium ..  197 

.reacocK 1«7    -n     -i  T"  v  -/• 

^=|^£=ii;:;:J 

jig    Discoboli 44 

Tree  Whiting 174  p 

Wood  Argus 1 75 

—      -  j--      i^orauo 23 

Broad 139 

Common 133 

s-aiiow-taif iso  T)a^^B°^;:;;;;;: 

Duck-Shell 7S 

E. 

Cabinet  Beetle... US 

CandleMoth 152 

•Common........... -«  Electric.. 

Loase  ^ 

r  Jack"! '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.".'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.  110  P 

Cartilaginous  Fishes IS 

Cat  Fish 36    False  Plant  Louse 134 

Caterpillar 113  '  Fire  Bird 172 

Hunter 113    Fire  Bodies 7> 

Centipede 100    Flat  Fish 43 

Cephalopoda 61     Flea 101 

Ctaetodon 19  Ground li>2 

Chain  Worm 198  Sand 107 

( 'hamacea  Ent.  „ 84    Flies 192 

ClK-i-se  Mite 93  BlueBottle 1!>4 

Chisrre 102  House,  Com 1!'3 

Cbondropterigfl 51  Corpse 194 

Clifden  Nonpareil 157  I  Gad 192 

Climber 24  Gold 194 

Club-bearer 112  Horse  Bot .' 19-2 

Cockscomb 73  Meat 106 

Cochineal 135  Mushroom 194 

Cockroach 127  Servian 193 

Codfish 41  Vinegar 194 

rolcoptera 103    Flounder 43 


ICHTHYOLOGY  AND  ENTOMOLOGY. 


477 


Flying  Fish  

PACK  1 

17  1  ITnno     . 

PAGR 

Flying  Fishes  Ex  
Fluke  
Foarner  
Fork  Fleas..     .. 

85 
....  193 
132 
90 

j  Husa  

50 

!  Hymenoptera  
I. 

181 

Frog  Fish  

26 

G. 
Gamma  Moth  

....  15C 

Black-Tailed  
Sickle 

191 

192 

Yellow 

192 

Indian  Medusa  

201 

2(12 

....  152 
....  153 
....     66 
115 

Infusoria  

Alniaria  
Giants'  Ear  
Glow-Worm 

Ink-Snail  

fit 

Insecta  sft 

Molluscous  

90 

Lesser 

116 

Isinglass-Fish  

J. 

James's  St.,  Cap..  .   . 

50 
73 

Gnats 

181 

Common  .. 
Gold  Bus  
Gold  Fish  
Gordon's  Head 

....  193 
129 
....     23 
201 

John's  St.,  Bird  
Worm  
John  Dory  

K. 
Kertnes  ;  

154 
116 

18 

136 

Grasshopper  
Singing  
Groundling  
Gudgeon  
Carp  

....  129 
....  132 

::::  25 

31 

River  
Sea....'.  
Gurnet  

..     IS 
IS 
....     17 

Kneepan  
Knife-Handle  
Kaken  

70 
78 
63 

Gymnatus  

136 
...     46 

Lady  Bird  '.  
Bug  

....  118 
..  116 

IT. 

Haddock 

.  .  .  .     42 
....     57 
.  .  .  .     42 
.  .  .  .     68 
164 

Cow             

Hag  Fish  ,  
Hake  

56 

River..:.' 

....     56 
....     56 
133 

Harps  

Sea  

Bee  Moth  
Broad  Bordered  Bee.... 
Glass  Wings  
Hornet 

...   185 
...  166 
....  166 
163 

Lantern  Fly  
Laphobranchi  

134 
13 

Leaf  Eaters 

107 

Flea  
Insect  
Louse  
Rollers  

134 
....  127 
134 
151 

Six  Spot 

165 

White  Spot  
Hawk  Moths  or  Buzzers  
Death's  Head  

...165 
...  166 
169 

Beech  Leaf 

151 

Dove-Tail 

166 

Pine  Leaf 

151 

Evening  Peacock's  Eye. 
Elephant  Spotted  

...  167 
...  168 

Leeches  
Horse  
Lepidoptera  
Letter  Fish 

....  196 
....  196 
144 

15 

Humming  Bird  
Lime  Hawk        

...  166 
167 

16S 

Libellul'E 

137 

Poplar  
Privet  Hawk  

...  167 
...  169 

LineEel  
Ling  
Lithodermes  
Loach 

....  193 
....     42 
....     76 
....     83 

Taper  
Swift  Wing  

...  167 
...  168 
169 

Mud                       .     .. 

IT                   '*       y^y. 

63 

66 

...  104 

77 

Tree  Worm  

123 

Herrings,  King  of  
Red 

...     23 

.     38 

Migratory  

....  129 
6T 

Hesperia  Butt  
Skippers  

...  170 
...  170 

Lump  Fish  

M. 
Mackerel 

44 

11 

Hermit  

...  173 

...     9S 
.    4=3 

TTi  "            (      '  ' 

Malacopterygii,  Soft  Fin  
Anodes  

....     13 
..     18 

Hornets  

...  186 

Horn  of  Ammon . 


Subbrachii 


478 


INDEX. 


Malacodcrmi  Beetles.. 

PAGE 

115 

Perch,  Giant  
Red  

sea 

PAGE 

16 
15 

14 

M;i!apterurus  
Marbled  Cone  
May  Bug  

86 
6T 
117 

Stone  

lii 

Meal  Bu" 

121 

Percoides  
Periothaliuus  
Petrodon 

14 
20 

41 

Measle...  

193 
.  145 

201 

1  .">•' 

120 

Pike,  Common  
Horned 

84 

.     35 

Midas  Ear        

65 

Millipede  
Mil'inedie 

89 

Pilchard  
Pilot  Fish 

49 

22 

Miser  

..    89 

Pine  Scarabeus  

107 
75 
13 

Mollusca 

58 

Mold  Beetle 

120 

Moon  Fish 

48 

48 

Moon-Shaped  Beetle.. 

Moths 

124 

..148 

Pleuronectes  
Pointed  Cone  
Polypus  

43 
67 
199 

199 

Apple-tree  
Clothes  
Corn 

149 
150 
149 

Porcelain  Shell  

66 

Dagger  
Frost 

155 
lot! 

Porcupine  Fish  

43 

107 

Ghost  
Knotgrass  
Linden 

152 
155 

.  153 

Praying  Mantis  
Puss  Moth    

127 
153 

Q. 

57 

Pine 

143 

Kosin  

149 
99 

Mullet 

17 

Sea 

24 

193 

4G 

E. 
Eadiata  

195 

N. 

Nail  Shell  
Nautilus 

77 
62 

Kaiu  Worms  

195 
116 

Needle  Fish  

13 

Kays  

54 

Nine  Eyes                .... 

56 

2Qi) 

Giant 

55 

Noble  Coral 

Sting 

55 

Noctua  Butt  

154 

Razor  Shell  
Kibbon  Fish 

2:5 

Delphini  

155 
.  106 

Richard 

110 

O. 
Oil  Jar 

66 

River  Pearl  
Red  Deceiver  
Roach 

78 

27 

82 

Rock  Fish  

15 

Rotifera  

S. 
Sailor  

203 

02 

One  Eye  

Oyster 

90 
.     71 

P. 

.     66 

Salmon 

87 

37 

I'aint.-r's  Shell  
Paper  Moth  
Parrot  Fish 

77 
90 

..     27 

Sardell  or  Sardine  

40 

..  .     27 

Sea 

27 

Saw  Fish 

53 

Pearl  Oyster  
Peacock  Stone  
1'ecten  Jacobee  
Pelican's  Foot 

73 
75 
73 
.69 

Scallop  

73 

Scarlet  Grain  

136 
95 

.  200 

Pencil  Bug 

122 

Devil 

26 

Perch,  Common  

14 

Dragon  

47 

ICHTHYOLOGY    AND    ENTOMOLOGY. 

PACK  j 
Sea  Ear  Aft  1  Tarantula 

479 

PA<;R 

Egg  

Feather 

201     Tellina  

78 

Hare  
Hedgehog  
Horse.  ..7  

70 
201 

Tenebrio  
Termites  

121 

742 

47 

Thorn  back  

55 

Lico  
Owl     .  . 

...     89 
44 

Thread  Worm  

203 
97 
98 

96 

Parrot 

American  
Dog  

Stars  
Wolf  

199 

MeSl              

Shark,  Giant  .  .  . 

52 
54 

Hammer-head  

Tinea 

14S 

White  

..    53 

Toad  Fish 

Sheep  Bot  

192 

Tobias  Fish 

Ship-worm  

78 

Torpedo  

55 

Shore  Flv. 

139 

141 

Shrimp  
Silurus  

87 
36 

Trout,  Common  
Golden  

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.    38 

Skip-jack  

55 
109 

39 
..    69 

Skippers,  Butt  

Argus,  beautiful  

171 
171 

Trunk  Fish  
Tunny  

49 
20 

Black  Goldpoint.... 

172 

Turbot  
Turnip  Fly  

43 

.    119 

Broom  Skipper  
Little  Airon  
Mallow  Skip  
Pearl  Skip  
Slu" 

171 
..   ..  171 
171 
172 
63 
204 
33 
64 

V. 

Vegetable  Kingdom  
Vinegar  Eel....  

W. 
Wart-eater 

205 
204 

129 

Smallest  Point  
Smcrlin  

Snail,  Field.. 

Vineyard  

64 

Zebra  
Soft  Finned     ... 

05 

28 

Sole 

43 

186 

Sparoides 

19 

Cynips  Petioli  
Gall     

191 

.  190 

Spider,  Great  Amer  

.   .   .     92 

92 

190 

Cross 

93 

Fi<*  Borer 

191 

Sea 

83 

191 

Water  

94 

Leaf  

190 

90 
158 

.  .     16 

Pasteboard  
Rose  Gall  

186 
191 
.  191 

Squirrel  Bird  

Star  Gazers 

50 

Water  Flea 

89 

Stickleback  
Sturgeon  
Stone-finger  
Sucker.....  

18 
49 
78 
S3 

Water  Moth 

140 

95 

Weevil  
Wendeltreppe  

106 
66 

Sugar  Worm  
Sun  Fish  
Surgeon  

101 
22 

White  Ants 

.     .  142 

Whirlwif 

102 

Wood  Beetle  

107 

Surmullet  

..    17 

154 

Wood  Lice  

Mailed 

...    90 

J      iiirch  
Pine  

Swell  Fish 

154 

....  15.'! 
27 

.  195 

Earth 

195 

Guinea.  
Water  
Wrinkled  Round-mouth  

Z. 
Zoophytes  

197 
196 
67 

....  199 

131 

Sword  Fish 

T. 

Tape-  worm.... 

,..  193 

480 


INDEX. 


INDEX    TO    BOTANY. 


PAGE  :  Bindweed 302 

Acacia 250  •'  Hitter  Sweet .'.  304 

Three-thorned 256    Blackberry <>fi5 

Agave 843  Bristly <_'C,ii 

Agaric 371     Black  Xishtshade ::   I 

Alder 331     Black  Thorn 262 

Alehoof 31-2    Blueberry 291 

-\ILM- SOT     Borase 3ft! 

Allspice    271     Bottle  Gourd 274 

Carolina 271     Bouncing  Bet v:31 

Almond  Tree 250  j  Box  Elder 242 

Bitter 259  |  Briony 272 

Flowering 259     Broco'li 226 

Aloe .34-2    Broom 255 

Amaryllis 340    Broom 254 

Anemone 220    Buckeye 241 

'Anise '2>l     Bircb 831 

Apple 268    Buckbean 302 

Apricot 261    Buckthorn 24S 

Arbor  Vita 336  I  Buckwheat 315 

Archil  Moss 367    Bufflst 369 

Arnica 290  I  Bullace  Tree 262 

Arrow  Root 33:)    Burdock 292 

Artichoke 293    Burning  Bush 249 

Jerusalem 208    Buttercup .- 219 

Asafoetida 27S    Butter  anil  Eges 3'MJ 

Ash 29S    Button  Weed 2^7 

Manna 29S    Button  Wood G31 

Aspen 335 

Astragalus 251 

Aster7 294  0. 

Avara.. 850 

Azalia 296    Cabbnge  22,") 

Bulbstalk 226 

Green 226 

B.  Savoy 225 

Turnip 2>6 

Bakuba 346  Tree 34S 

Balm 311    Cactus 275 

Bamboo 368    Cajaput  Tree 272 

Banana 344    Calamus 352 

Barberry 222    Calabash 806 

Barley ar>9    Calico  Bush 296 

Basswood 235    Camellia 236 

Bean,  Common 2.M1,  Japonica 2> 

Windsor 256    Camphor  Tree 317 

Lima 268    Canary  Seed  Grass f  55 

Bush 257    Cante'lcupe 273 

Kidney 257    Caper  Bush 2>9 

Bed-straw 2^4    Caraway 23'} 

Besffar  Ticks 294    Cardamum 339 

Beech 329    Cardoon 293 

Beet,  Common 314    Carrot 277 

Sugar 314    Carnation 231 

Burgundy 314    Cassava 822 

Belladonna 3S7    Castor  Oil  Bean 321 

Benzoe 296    Catelpa 308 

Bibernellc 2S1  :  Catnip 310 

Biilons 294    Caoutchouc 323 

Bilberry 295    Cayenne  Pepper 305 

Birdbefrv 267    Cedar  334 

Bird'sFoot 253    Celandine 224 


INDEX. 


481 


Celery  

PAGE 

280 

Dulse 

PAGR 

Cereus  

276 

Dutchman's  Pipe 

Chantrelle  

870 

Dwarf  Elder 

283 

Cherry,  Wild  
Bay  

Choke 

262 
2H3 

..  263 

Dyer's  Weed  
E. 

230 

219 

Oxheart 

263 

Morello  

263 

Ecd  

263 

Chervil  

277 

K-'j,'  Plant  
Elder.... 
Dwarf 

805 

Chestnut  
Chickweed  

329 

.  312 

329 

Water 

Cinchona  

285 

Elm.... 

827 

Cinnamon  Tree  
Cinqnefoil  

316 
264 

358 
290 

Endive 

Citron  Tree  
Gives  

841 

Erfacete 

Clove  Tree  

270 

Erie  

331 

Clover,  Meadow  
Creeping  
Everlasting  .  .  . 
Hop 

252 
252 
254 

253 

820 

F. 
Fennel  

273 

Snail 

258 

254 

Club  Moss  

864 

355 

865 

Cocoa  Nut  Tree  

234 

Fescue  

856 

Colocynth  
Corn  Cockle  

274 
231 

223 

817 

828 

Fir 

344 

835 

284 

Silver 

Cotton  

233 

Fire  Bean  

....  258 

Corydalis  

224 

?26 

Five  Finger  
Flax. 

264 

233 

Cress,  Indian  
Meadow 

246 

235 

Flowering  Ahaond  
Forget-me-not  
Foxglove  
Foxtail  

French  Eav  Grass  
Fuller's  Thistle 

260 
803 
877 
385 
856 
238 

Crowfoot  

220 

Crown  Imperial  
Cucumber  

841 
272 

231 

Currant,  Red  

2T5 

244 

Fumatory  
Fun«'i 

224 

869 

Cutgrass  
D. 

853 

412 

G. 

241 

2'-'7 

Dahlia 

291 

Pink  

231 
811 

290 

857 

Garlic     

.  ..  841 

Date  Tree  
Palm  

347 
849 
299 

Geraniums  

Cranesbill 

246 

246 

Gentian  

801 

Dead  Nettle 

812 

Gherkin  
Gideon's  Apple  
Gilliflower..  

Gill  over  the  Ground 

271 
210 
225 
812 

Devil  in  a  Bush  
Dewberry  
Dianthus  
Barbatus  
Dill 

221 
266 
232 

2-n 

278 

838 

275 

Dirca 

818 

294 

Dittany  

310 
815 

Goosegrass  

265 
242 
245 
245 

Dog's  Bane  
Dog's  Bent  

880 
854 

Black  Corinth  
Catawba  

21 

482 


INDEX. 


Great  Snap  Dragon  

.  .  .  306  ;  Jericho  Rose  

.   .  .. 

Ground  Hemlock  

336 

!  Jerusalem  Cherrv  
Juinhe 

..  MM 

Ivy      

312 

Pine 

33t> 

Gruundsel  

290 

K. 

Guava  
Guelder  Rose  
Gums  

-271 
.....  251 

Senna  

251 
251 

Kouut  i  a.m  

L. 
Lace  Bark.... 

..  350 
..  813 

Catechu  

Acacia         

269 

Elastic  Tree 

820 

Elastic  Tree,  SiphonU.. 

H. 

Hair  Grass  
Harvost  Rose  
Hawthorn  
Hazel  
Heartsease  

301 

.....   -J-.7 

M 
230 

Ladies'  Clipper  
Larch  
Larkspur  

..  837 
..  333 
.  .  2-21 
296 

Lavender  
Leather-  wood  
Lemon  Tree  

..  311 
81S 
23S 

Heath  
Hedge  Hyssop  
Hedysarum  
Heliotrope  

Hellebore 

295 
380 
253 
803 

Leopard's  Bane  
Lianas  
Lichens  
Lilac  

..  m 

..  367 
..  293 

Hemlock  
Hemp 

8S5 

Lime  Tree  
White  

Linden 

..  235 
..  236 
.  .  235 
..  306 
..  255 
..  W-6 

Henbane  
Henbit  

875 
812 

Lion's  Mouth  

High  Cranberry  

2S3 
'.'.'.'.'.'.  249 

Liquorice  

Hobble  Bush  
Holly  

Lucerne  

..  253 
305 

249 

Lungwort  

M. 
Mud  Apple 

Hotter  Suckle  

•>-.> 

Trumpet  
Chinese  
Hop 

282 

Horebonnd 

2S5 

Horse  Chestnut  
Horse  Settle  
I  Ior*e  Radish  ... 

241 

M-ic*1 

818 

Masnoliatv;v 

862 

Maidenhair 

Horse  Tail  
Hound's  Tongue  
Huckleberry      ... 

SS4 
303 

Maize 

Mallow  

.  2:53 

.  BM 

0-21 

Hyacinth 

..,.>     \[.}|Mji.p 

Hvpericum  
Hyssop  

I. 
Iceland  Moss  
Ilex  
Indian  Corn  
Fig.,  

-240 
310 

3CG 
249 

m 

276 

Maple  .... 

..  S56 

Bird'sEve  
Maripa  ".  

'.  tot 

Mastic 

Meadow-grass  
Mcnl'ar  
Mellilot  
Melon 

.  .   '-'.V. 

Imligo  Plant?.  
Ivy,  American  

J. 

JacobeaLily  
Jamestown  \Voed  
Japan  Rose  

251 
246 

S40 
:'.-:. 

Musk  
Mezereum  
MUnionette  
Millet  
Mistletoe  
Monkshood  
Moo  n  seed  
Mori!.... 

..  -'7.5 

.'.  2:0 

.   :  >-,2 

.   370 

INDEX. 


483 


Mountain  Ash.... 

PAGE 

207 

Pome<r  n 

PACE 

Mourning  Bride  

2S9 

Poplar 

Mulberry,  Black  
White  

323 
824 

Poppy  

Mullein  
Mushroom  

806 
809 

Pot  Marigold  

294 

Musk  Thistle  

292 

Privet 

Mustard  

225 

Myrtle  Blooms 

270 

Common  

271 

"a 

N. 

* 

Quince  Tree  

...  269 

Narcisus  

840 

Quitch  Grass 

857 

Nasturtion  
Nectarine  

246 

261 

' 

Nettle 

E 

817 

Nux  Vomica  

299 

Radish  
Ragged  Lady  
Ragged  Robin  

227 
221 

281 

O. 

337 

Rain  Manna  .  . 

Oak  

827 

219 

Cork  

Rape 

Oats..      . 

859 

2o5 

Oily  Seed 

327 

356 

Oleander  

300 

Red-Top  

85  1 

Olive  

297 

Reed  Grass.   . 

363 

Onion  

3-41 

Cut  Grass  

353 

Orange  Tree 

289 

Creeping 

354 

357 

315 

Orchis 

337 

Rib  Grass 

Orleans  Tree  
Orange  

229 
870 

Rice  

Rose,  Eed 

361 

2ii(5 

Osier    

330 

White 

267 

Oyster  Plant 

290 

295 

P. 

220 

Rose  Campion  
Rosemary  
Rowan  Tree  
Running  Box  

281 

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  267 
800 

85S 

Painted  Lady  

257 

Rye  Grass  

857 

Parsley  
Parsnep  
Partridge  Berry  

279 
278 
2S7 

319 

S. 

291 

2S7 

840 

Pea  

257 

Sage  

309 

Peach  

260 

Sago  Palm  

847 

Pear     

26S 

Sago  

809 

Pelargonian  
Pepper,  Klack  
Eed 

246 
852 

305 

Sain-Foiu  
Salad  
Salsifv         

234 
589 
290 

809 

814 

Piu  Plant 

318 

858 

271 

817 

812 

Scabious  

287 

Pine 

Scotcli  Fir  

83J 

Pino  Apple 

848 

223 

Pink...    

231 

249 

Sea  Onion  

841 
..     ..  868 

Plane  Tree  

331 

Sensitive  Plant  

247 

Plantain  

318 

...  261 

Sensitive  Plant  
Sesamum  

259 

...  807 

484 


INDEX. 


PAOB  I  V. 

Shepherd's  Purse 228  i  PACK 

Shepherd's  Weather  Glass 313  i  Valerian 2S7 

Singalassi 813    Vanilla 833 

Sloe 2(53  :  Vascular  Plants 219 

Smoke  Plant 250  i  Vernal  Grass 350 

Snap  Dragon 306    Vetch 256 

Snow-Drop 340    Violet 2-29 

Soapwort •_'.;!  Dog's 230 

Sorrel  Common 24T    Virsin's  Bower 2-21 

Sonr 314  ,  Virginia  Snake  Root 319 

Sour  Dock 815 

Southernwood 274 

Sow-Bread 3131  W. 

Spanish  Needles 294 

Spearmint 310  '  Walnut 323 

Spicewood 317    Wayfaring  Tree 2S8 

Spindle  Tree 249  ;  Weeping  Willow 830 

Spinage 314  j  Weld 230 

Spurge  Common 320  !  White  Lilv 342 

Laurel SIS  !  Wild  Basil" 310 

Squash 274    Wild  Comfrey 803 

Squill 841  !  Wild  Ginger." 319 

St  John's  Bread 259  I  Willow 329 

St.  John's  Wort 240  !  Witch  Hazel 329 

St  Peter's  Corn 858    Woad 227 

Stone-Clover 203    Wolf's  Milk 320 

Stellated  Anise 2-21  i  Woodbine,  American -2-2 

Storax  Tree 296  ]  Woodbine 2!»5 

Strawberry ?64  ,  Wood  Warden 234 

Succory 290    Woody  Nightshade 304 

SugarCane 860    Wormwood 293 

Snsar  Maple 201     Wrack 36$ 

Sumach 250 

Summer  Savory 810 

Sunflower : 292  T. 

Swallow-Wort 300 

Sweet  Flag 352    Tarn 851 

Sweet  Marjoram 311  |  Yarrow 293 

Sweet  Potatoe 302     Yellow  Gentian 301 

Sword  Lily 339  i  Yew 835 

Sycamore 331,241     Yew  Leaved  Fir 335 

American 83<i 

T. 

Z. 

Tall  Oat  Grass 350 

Tamarind  Tree 250    Zisyphus  Latus 248 

Tangle 863 

Tare 256 

Tea  Plant 235  POISONOUS  PLANTS. 

Teasel 28S 

Thorn 267    Aconite 373 

Thorn  of  the  Cross 248  !  Arum 373 

Timothy 355    Agaric 3>1 

ToadFlax 306     Baneberry 375 

Tragacanth  Tree 251  '  Belladonna 337 

Tree  Aloe 843    Black  Hellebore 380 

Truffle 369  :  Cohosh 375 

Trumpet  Flower 803     Cursed  Crowfoot 3S3 

Tulip 2-21     Darnel 3>7 

TulipTrce 342     Deadly  Nightshade 381 

Turnip 227     DOLT'S  Parsley 890 

Turpentine  Tree 256    Foxlove 377 

Hedge  IIvssop 3-0 

Hemlock". 8S4 

U.  Water 387 

Henbine 375 

Upas  Tree 299     Hog  Mushroom 333 


INDEX. 


485 


Mandrake,  or  May  Apple  ... 

PAGE 

374 

Poison  Milkweed.... 

PAGE 

370 

Meadow  Saffron  ......   

.....  800 

Puff  Ball  

878 

Monk's  Hood. 

3TG 

882 

381 

Poison  Oak  
Ivy  
Lettuca  

379 
...  3T9 
3T9 

Swamp  Parsley  
Toadstool......  
Wolf's  Bauo  

3S2 

..  377 
...  876 

INDEX    OF     GENERA. 


219 

A  on 

221 

222 

4S.  Scropli  ularacete  

:;i't; 

222 

Bignoniacese  Sub  

;im; 

..  223 

49.  Labiatw 

3n'» 

..  224 

"!•' 

7    Orucifenc 

''24 

Plantacca- 

...  i  ., 

8    Caparirtaeete 

229 

51    Chenopodia 

9.  Bixina  

229 

:'-H5 

10.  Violacew  ... 

.  229 

:!l(i 

230 

817 

12    Linueeie 

232 

;;iS 

232 

55   Aristolochiacese 

SH 

14.  Nucifene  

234 

819 

15.  Tiliacetu  

2:35 

56.  EuphorbiaceiB  

:;i'» 

16    Camellia     

57.  Ficus. 

:>->:i 

238 

58.  Urticaoeaj 

8.T) 

.  240 

59    Cupulifene 

3-'7 

241 

20.  Vitaceae  
21.  Geraniaceae  

242 
24C 

..  246 

61.  Betulacete  
62.  AbietineiC  
63.  Orchidaceip     

•ifii 
889 

R37 

23   Oxalidaceze 

...  247 

64   Zim'ibcracea;  .  .  . 

:ws 

248 

65   Liliaceae 

839 

25.  Tercbinthew  
26.  Papilionaceae  
27.  Rosaceie  
28.  Pomegranate  Punica.  . 
29   Myrtaceae 

249 
250 
259 
269 

270 

66.  Palmsc  
67.  Graininese  

HALF  GRASSES. 

:;W 
808 

858 

272 

"r>  i 

31.  Grossulacese  

274 

277 

63.  Equisalacoie  

8*4 

;!<U 

83.  Caprifoliaceae  

282 
2S3 

70.  Filices  !.. 

"5    (  'ornapp'p 

284 

I  Sub  Class  Cellular  Plants  with 

°S4 

."iiG 

287 

71    Hepatica; 

3i'ii 

288 

72.  Musci  

;u;(i 

39.  Vaccinia;  

294 

...  295 

II  Sub  Hasa.  Unleavened  Cellular 

.     .  .    297 

Plants     ... 

.  299 

"07 

800 

78   Lichens 

807 

41    P       t             *»-p 

801 

DOS 

4T>.  Convolvulaceae  

802 

75.  Fungi  

.",09 

486 


INDEX. 


INDEX  TO  MINERALOGY  AND  GEOLOGY. 


A. 
Adamant,  Diamond  

PACK 

....  42T 

....  429 
..  420 

Clay,  Limestone  
Porcelain  

PAGE 

436 

4S6 

Coal,  Stone  .  . 

449 

........  449 
450 
4%0 
463 
410 
46S 

441 

Brown  
AVood  

Alkalies  
Alluvium  
Alum  

Alumina 

443 
402 

^,jl 

4°!) 

Cobalt  
Conchylian  Limestone  

4."Jl                   Glance 

464 

Amethyst  
Amianthus  

42  -I                  Green,  Carbon  of.  . 
443                   Ore  

461 
458 

465 

Red 

45S 

Apbrite      

..   .    431 

Vitreous  
Slate  
Coral  Reefs  .  .  . 

469 
412 

.     462 

Aphrodite  
Arsenates  of  Iron  

...     439 
....     462 
41)3 

Cornelian 

4S5 

Arsenic,  Native  

...     457 

Corundum  

429 

42T 
429 
408 

Sulphurets  of.  
White  
Yellow  Sulphur  

....     463 
....    457 
...     467 
463 

D. 
Diamond  

Pyrites  
Abostos  
Asphaltum  

a 

Baryta     

463 
....  443 
452 

443 

Demantspath  
Dolomite  

K. 

Basanite  
Bernstein  
Bervl  

426 
451 
430 

Electron  

...  452 

Emerald  

430 
434 

Bimsteiu  
Bitter  Spar  

425 
408 

F. 
Feldspar  

Black  Lead  
Blue  Vitriol  
Bog  Iron  Ore  

453 
....  447 
407 

Bohn-ertz  
Bole            

407 
437 

Floetzgebirge  
Fluorspar  
Formations  
Carboniferous.. 

424 
405 
441 
406 
413 

404 

456 

Bunter  Sandstone  

411 

C. 

Cairngorm  Stone  
Calamine  
•  Calc                                .     .  . 

424 

....  430 
..  439 

Jurassic  
Transition  
Trias  
Silurian  

406 
411 
409 
418 

Fuller's  Earth  

4i6 

G. 

Gagat 

450 

408 

Cambrian  System  
Carboniferous  Formation  
Carbon 

...  .  414 
413 
449 

Cat's-eye 

424 
..   ..  460 

464 

Ceruse..-.  

Garnet  
Gold  

480 
472 

Chalcedony  
Chalk  
Cinnabar  ,  

....  424 

406 
....  466 
435 

Graphite 

458 

Graywacke  

414 

448 

Pipe  
Potters'  

4:-)5    Grvphite  
435:  Gypsum  

408 
441 

INDEX. 


487 


Hematite  

PAGF. 
...  455 

Magnesia  with  Alumina  
Malachite  

PAGE 

437 
461 
456 

lloneystone  

447 

....  425 

Mansanese  Spar  
Marhla.. 

i. 

i  Marl  Variegated  

411) 
439 

417 

Mellite  

447 

469 
453 
447 

Metallic  Earths  
Metallic  Salts  

Arsenical  

...  462 

Bisulphuret  of  
Bog  

...    462 
...    459 

Minerals,  Combnstive  

44S 

Mispickel  

462 

Carbonate  of 

459 

Molybdena  
Sulphuret  of  
Moonstone  
Muschelkalk  

465 
465 
484 
410 

Chromic  

...     454 

Magnetic  
Ore!  

...     454 
....  407 

Peroxydof  

455 

462 

N. 
Naphtha  

452 

Red  

...  455 

Spathic  
Eoestone  
Stone  

....  459 
403 
....  456 

Sulphate  of  

J. 
Jasper  

447 
...  426 

Gold  
Iron  
Lead  
Mercury  
Platinum  
vjiver 

...  471 
465 
464 
469 
...  472 
470 

Jura  Formation  

K. 
Kaolin 

...  401 

434 

Natron  
Niter  

0. 
Obsidian  
Olivine  
Oolite  

446 
446 

435 

43S 

4:17 

Keuper  Sandstone  

..  409 
463 

Kupfer  Schieflfer  

L. 

Labradorite  
Lapis  Lazuli  
Lava  

...  412 

...  434 
...  433 
...  419 
469 

Opal  

...  420 
427 

454 

4^6 

402 
455 

P. 
Peat  Bogs  
Peroxyd  of  Iron  

'Black  
Carbonate  
Ore        

....  453 
...  460 
...  460 
...  464 
...461 

Petroleum  
Pistachio  
Pitch  Mineral  

.   ...  452 
433 
452 

Sulphuret  of  
AVhite  

Pitch  Stone  
Platinum  

...  434 
..  472 

Glance  
Letterkohl  or  Clay  Slate  Coal.. 

...  410 

Potter's  Clay  
Pozzuolani          

436 
420 

....  443 

Primitive  Mountains  
Pumice  Stone  
Pyrites,  Iron  
Copper  

Q. 
Quartz,  Pure  

415 
435 

462 
463 

...  488 

..  450 

.  451 

'  Fluate  of 

452 

Oxalate  of  
Limestone  
Clay  
Gryphite  

....447 
...  439 

...  40S 

.  .  .  .  40S 

Ma'gnesian  
LimonJte  

Lithomarire  .... 

408 
...  407 
...  436 

Common  
Quicksilver  

..  424 
469 
439 

488 


INDEX. 


PAGE    Sulplmret  of  Molvbdena. 465 

Eauschgelb 466                           Mercury 466 

Realgar 463  .                  Silver  and  Antimony.  466 

Resinous  Minerals 451 

Rocks,  General  remarks  on ti99 

Crystal 423  T. 

Oil 452    Talc 483 

Primary 401  ;  Talc  Familv 433 

Plutonic 399    Tertiary  Rocks 403 

Salt 400  j  Tin  Ore 457 

Secondary 405           Stone 4.VT 

Stratified 899           "White 462 

Tertiary 404    Topaz 4:» 

Trap 417    Touchstone 4i'6 

Rocstone 403    Tourmaline 431 

Rotheliegende 412    Transition  Rocks 414 

Ruby 429    Trap  Basalt 420 

Balas 43T    Tremolite 443 

Spinel 43s    Trias  Formation 419 

Tnfa 420 

Turf 450 

S.                                                Moor 402 

Turquoise 433 

Salts 445 

Alumina 44T> 

Mineral 445  IT. 

Rock.   445    Umber 456 

Saltpetre 446  !  Unstratifled  Kocks  or  Igneous  For- 

Sandstone 411               mation 415 

Sapphire 429    Uppor  Red  Sandstone 409 

Schwefelkies 462 

Sea  Foam 439 

Serpentine 433  V. 

Sigillata 437    Variegated  Marl 410 

Silver 470    Vegetable  Earths 402 

Glance 462    Vitriol,  Blue 447 

Sulphuretof 464                  Green 443 

Vitreous 464    Volcanic  Eruptions 417 

Smaltine 463                   Rocks 417 

Soapstone 436 

Spanish  Chalk 438 

Spar,  Heavy 443  "W. 

Tabular 442     Wasserblel 450 

Special  Mineralogy 421     Wood  Coal 465 

Speckstein 433    White  Lead 461 

Spinel 437                         Venice 461 

Steinmark 436 

Stone  Coal 449 

Strontia 443  Z. 

Succinic  Acid 452    Zeckstein 409 

Sulphur 451    Zeolite 431 

Salphate  Barytas 443    Zinc 460 

Sulphuretof  Antimony 465    Zincspath 460 

Arsenic 467  |                   Carbonate  of 460 


BOTANICAL    GLOSSARY. 


ABRUPT.  —  Terminating  suddenly. 
ACULEATE  —  Prickly. 

CYMES.—  A  kind  of  panicle  with   ir- 
regular subdivisions. 

ACEROSE.  —  Stiff,  sharp. 

DENTATE.  —  Toothed. 

ACUMINATE.—  Ending    in   a  tapering 

DIGITATE.  —  Spread  out  like  the  fingers. 

point. 

DISCOID    FLOWER.  —  Having    a     disk 

ACUTE.—  Sharp,  not  rounded  at  the 

without  ravs. 

point. 

DECIDUOUS.—  Falling  of  leaves  at  the 

AGARIC.—  Mushroom. 

nsual  time. 

AKENK.  —  A    one-seeded    fruit,  often 

DISK.—  The  surface  of  a  leaf,  or  tho 

bony  or  nut-like. 

face  or    central    part  of   a  compound 

ALG,E.  —  Mosses. 

flower. 

ALTERNATE.—  Placed    alternately    on 

DRUPE.  —  A  fleshy  pericarp  without 

the  axis  or  receptacle. 

valves,  containing  a  nut  or  stone. 

AMENTS.  —  Slender  spikes  of  flowers. 

DRUPACEOUS.—  Nut-like. 

Catkins. 

ELLIPTICAL.  —  Oval. 

ANNULAR.  —  In  form  of  a  rin?. 

KNTIRE.  —  Whole.     Even  at  the  ndge. 

ANTHER.  —  The  capsule  containing  the 
pollen. 

FALCATE.—  Sickle-shaped.    Curved. 
FASCICLE.—  A  bundle.       Foot-stalks 

APETALOUS.  —  Without  a  corolla  and 
petals. 

proceeding  from  the  same  point. 
FKONP.  —  The  leaf  or  leaf-like  expan- 

ARBORESCENT.— Tree-like. 

sion  of  crvptogamous  plants. 

AROMATIC.  —  Having  a  spicy  flavor  or 

FLORETS.—  A  little  flower.     One  of  the 

fragrance. 
AURANTIPM.  —  An  orange. 

number  in  an  aggregated  or  compound 
flower. 

A  VENA.  —  Oats. 

GLOBOTTS.—  Spherical. 

AWNED.  —  Furnished  with  slender  bris- 

GF.NICULATB. —  Forming  an  angle   at 

tles  —  on  the  chaff  of  grasses. 
AXIL.  —  The    angle    where    the    leaf 

the  joints  like  a  bent  knee. 
HILUM.  —  The  scar  or  mark  on  a  seed. 

unites  with  the  stem. 

Black  spot  on  a  bean. 

AXILLARY.—  Belonging  to  the  axil. 

1  1  1  ISSUTE.  —  Rough-haired. 

BACCATE.  —  Fleshy,  succulent  ;  like  a 

HISPID.—  Bristly. 

berry. 

HOARY.  —  Covered  with  white  pow- 

BIFID. —  Two-cleft. 

der. 

Bii'iNNATiFii>.«-The  common  petiole. 

IMBUICATK.  —  When   the   scales   of   a 

Having  opposite  pinnatifid  branches. 
BULB.—  A  kind  of  bud  formed  of  nu- 

stalk or  calyx  lie  over  one  another,  like 
the  scales  of  a  fish  or  shingles  on  a  roof. 

merous  fleshy  scales  or  coats  usually 

LANCEOLATE.  —  Tapering.     Like   the 

seated  on  the  neck  of  the  root 

head  of  a  spear. 

CALYX.  —  The    flower  -cup    or    outer 

LEAFLETS.  —  The     small    constituent 

covering  of  a  flower. 

leaves  of  a  compound  leaf. 

CARPELS.  —  Certain  appendages  of  the 
pistil  —  a  constituent  portion   of    com- 

LEGUME. —  Bean-pod-like. 
LOBE.—  The  division  of   a  petal   or 

pound  fruit. 

leaf. 

CALLOUS.  —  Gristle-like. 

MARGIN-ATI?.  —  Having  the  border  or 

CORDATE.  —  Heart-shaped. 

edging  of  a  texture  or  color  different 

CORYMBS.—  Helmet.        Bearing     the 

from  that  of  the  disk. 

flowers  all  on  the  same  level   on  the 

MUCRONATE.  —  Having  a  small  point 

summit. 

projecting  from  an   obtuse   end.    Tho 

COROLLA.  —  The    flower.       A   little 

midrib  in  leaves. 

crown. 

MIILTIFIP.  —  Many-cleft 

CORIACEOUS.—  Leathery. 

NODE.  —  The  knot  or  joint  of  a  stem 

CRKNATE.  —  Having  rounded  teeth. 

or  branch. 

CORYMBILOSE.  —  Having    the    flowers 

OBOVATE.—  With    the    broadest   end 

in  little  corymbs. 

above. 

490 


BOTANICAL    GLOSSARY. 


OBTFSE. — Blunt,  or  rounded. 

OVATE. — Flat,  ovoid,  egg-shaped,  as 
leaves,  eta 

PALMATE. — Hand-shaped. 

PAXICLE.— A  loose,  irregular  hunch 
of  flowers  with  subdivided  branches. 

PAPPUS. — The  crown  of  the  fruit  usu- 
ally hairy,  sometimes  feathery,  chaffy. 

PKCTIXATE.— Resembling  "the  teeth 
of  a  comb. 

PEDICEL.— The  ultimate  division  next 
to  the  flower  or  fruit 

PEDt-NCLE.— The  common  footstalk 
of  the  flower  or  fruit 

PKRFOLIATE. — With  the  stem  pierced 
through  the  leaf. 

PBRIAXTII.— The  tegumentary  part  of 
a  flower. 

PXIIIOARP. — Tho  seed-vessel  or  fruit. 

PETIOLE. — The  foot-stalk  of  a  leaf. 

PINNATE.— Having  distinct  leaflets  on 
opposite  sides  of  a  simple  petiole. 

PISTIL. — The  organ  which  occupies 
the  center  of  a  fertile  flower. 

PISTILLATE  FLOWEKS.—  Having  pis- 
tils but  no  stamens. 

PLICATE. — Folded,  plaited,  or  crimped. 

PLUMOTJS. — Feather-like. 

POLLEN.— The  fertilizing  powder 
contained  in  the  anthers. 

POME. — A  succulent,  fleshy  fruit — 
apple-like. 

PruEscExcE. — The  hairy  covering  of 
plants. 

PI-NCTATE. — Covered  with  indented 
points. 

RACEMES.— Bunches,  clusters. 

RAYS- — Florets  diverging  round  the 
margin  of  a  compound  flower. 

RECEPTACLE. — A  dilated  portion  of 


the  peduncle  containing  nutritive  mat- 
ter. 

REXIFOP.M. — Kidney-shaped. 
RETICI:LATE. — Resembling  net-work. 
SCAPE. — A  peduncle  proceeding  di- 
rectly from  the  root,  mostly  leaflets. 

SERRATE. — Having  sharp  teeth   like 
those  of  a  saw. 

;  SESSILE.— Sitting  close  without  any 
;  foot-stalk. 

I  SINUATE. — Having  incisions,  open  and 
rounded  at  bottom. 

i  SPIKE.— An  assemblage  of  axillary 
flowers  arranged  on  a  simple  axis. 

STAMEX. — The  organ  of  a  flower  which 
'  prepares  the  pollen. 

STAMIXATE    FLOWEB.— Having    sta- 
mens but  not  pistils. 
STIGMA. — The  summit  of  the  pistil. 
STRIATE. — Marked   or    scored   with 
parallel  lines  or  minute  ridges. 
i      SULCATE. — Furrowed  or  grooved. 
'•      TERETE. — Round,  like  a  column. 
j      TEEXATE. — Three-fold.       Three    to- 
gether, like  the  leaflets  of  clover. 
i      ToMEXTotrs. — Clothed  with  a  cottony 
pubescence. 

!  TKI-FOLIATE. — Leaves  arranged  in 
threes. 

!  UMBEL. — A  form  of  inflorescence  re- 
sembling an  open  parasol.  Formed  by 
the  expansion  of  several  peduncles  into 
one  flower. 

VALVES. — The  several  parts  of  a  seed 
vessel. 

VEILTICIL. — A    whorl.      Flowers    or 
leaves  surrounding  the  stem  in  a  ring. 

VII.LOUS. — Clothed    with    numerous 
long,  soft  hairs. 

WHORLS — See  Verticil. 


. 


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